;1 


! 


2654      5 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
THE  MANUAL  ARTS  MID  r,0?.: 

SANTA  BARBARA,  CALIFORNIA 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES    OF    WOOD: 


THEIR  CHARACTERISTIC   PROPERTIES. 


CHARLES  HENRY  SNOW,    C.E.,  Sc.D., 

Dean  of  the  School  of  Applied  Science,  New  York  University; 
Member  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  etc. 


SECOND   EDITION,  REVISED   AND   L.'LARGED. 
FIRST    THOUSAND. 


1001 

,      -          .jNO 
SANTA  BARBARA,  CALIFORNI 


NEW  YORK : 

JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS. 

LONDON:  CHAPMAN   &   HALL,  LIMITED. 

1910. 


Copyright   1903,  1908, 

BY 

CHARLES  HENRY  SNOW. 


THE  SCIENTIFIC   PRESS 

ROBERT  ORUMMONO  AND  COMPANY 

BROOKLYN.    N.   Y. 


SS 


PREFACE. 


THE  following1  is  a  brief  untechnical  presentation  of  gen- 
eral features  characterizing  economically  important  species  of 
wood.  It  is  the  result  of  notes  originally  brought  together 
from  many  already  existing  sources  and  later  augmented,  and 
verified  so  far  as  possible  for  the  present  use,  by  personal 
observation.  The  work  of  preparation  has  not  been  as  simple 
as  the  result  would  indicate,  and  although  great  care  has  been 
taken  to  check  each  fact,  errors  do  no  doubt  exist,  although 
it  is  not  believed  that  there  are  important  ones. 

Engineers  while  writing  upon  woods  have,  save  excep- 
tionally, emphasized  strength  beyond  most  other  properties. 
Other  works  for  expert  foresters  or  botanists  are  of  necessity 
too  special,  voluminous,  fragmental,  or  technical  for  the  casual 
student.  Some  popular  books  on  trees,  as  distinct  from 
woods,  are  available.  The  present  form  is  distinct  from  these 
and  is  intended  for  those  who  are  not  foresters  or  botanists, 
but  who  use  woods  or  desire  knowledge  of  their  distinguishing 
properties.  Allusions  to  trees,  historical  and  other  references, 

__  aside    from    those    directly   regarding    woods,   are    made    for 
completeness  and   in  order  to  mark,  distinguish,  or    separate 

"   the  species. 

Acknowledgments  are  particularly  due  to  the  publications 

1   of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  and  to  those  of  Prof.  Sargent,  to  Dr. 
•^    B.  E.  Fernow,  to  Mr.  Raphael  G.  Zon  for  suggestions  and  for  tech- 
nical revision,  to  the  Northwestern  Lumberman  and  other  trade 

iii 


iv  PREFACE. 

journals,  to  many  dealers,  who  have  been  uniform  in  their 
courtesy,  and  incidentally  to  Mr.  Morris  K.  Jesup,  whose  mag- 
nificent collection  of  woods  at  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural 
History  has  been  available  to  the  writer  as  to  others.  These, 
with  other  sources  of  information  acknowledged  by  the  writer, 
and  suggested  to  others,  are  suitably  arranged  in  the  following 
list.  Of  the  148  illustrations,  138  are  original,  the  drawings 
having  been  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the  writer  from 
actual  specimens  by  Mr.  Irving  T.  Worthley  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity and  several  students  of  New  York  University,  and  the 
photographs  by  Mr.  John  Hopfengartner,  Jr.,  of  Westchester, 
New  York  City.  Other  illustrations  are,  so  far  as  possible, 
acknowledged  in  place. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  present  book  is  far  more  complete  and  therefore  more 
useful  than  the  earlier  one.  The  form  or  arrangement  that 
found  favor  in  the  original  edition  has  been  retained;  but 
corrections  have  been  made,  and  some  sections  have 'been 
rewritten  throughout.  Over  four  hundred  new  names  have 
been  added  to  the  index. 

C.  H.  S. 

UNIVERSITY  HEIGHTS,  March  i,  1008. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


PART   I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Section  i.  Wood.  Definitions.  "Structure."  Weights.  Coefficients. 
Uses.  Consumption.  Botanical  and  Common  Nomenclatures. 
Trees.  Forestry.  General  Information,  etc i 

PART    II. 

EXOGENOUS  SERIES. 

Section  2.  Definitions.  Cellular  Structure.  Annual  Rings.  Medullary 
or  Pith  Rays.  Pith  Cavities.  Sapwood  and  Heartwood.  Cross, 
Radial  and  Tangential  Distinctions.  "Quarter  Sawn"  Surfaces. 
Decay.  Imperfections.  Common  and  Botanical  Subdivisions,  etc. .  1 1 

BROADLEAF   OR    HARDWOODS. 

Section  3.  Distribution.  Distinguishing  Characteristics.  General  In- 
formation, etc 16 

OAK  (Quercus). 

Section  4.  Distribution.  Historical.  Structural  and  Physical  Proper- 
ties of  Wood.  Commercial  Divisions.  Botanical  Characteristics 

of  Trees,  etc 17 

a.  White  Oak  (Quercus  alba) 19 

b.  Cow  Oak  (Quercus  michauxii) 20 

c>  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  prinus) 21 

d.  Post  Oak  (Quercus  minor) 22 

e.  Bur  Oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa) 23 

/.  White  Oak  (Quercus  garryana) 24 

g.  Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra) 25 

h.  Pin  Oak  (Quercus  palustris) 26 

i.  Spanish  Oak  (Quercus  digitata) 27 

jf.  Black  Oak  (Quercus  velutina) 28 

v 


vi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

k.  Live  Oak  (Quercus  virens) 

I.  California  Live  Oak  (Quercus  agrifolia) 

m.  Live  Oak  (Quercus  chrysolepis)  .  . 

n.  English  Oak  (Quercus  robur  var.  pedunculata)  . 

ASH  (Fraxinus),  etc. 

Sections.     Distribution.     Historical.     General  Properties.     Commercial 
Divisions.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  . 
o.  White  Ash  (Fraxinus  americana)  .  . 

b.  Red  Ash  (Fraxinus  pubescens)  .  . 

c.  Blue  Ash  (Fraxinus  quadrangulata)  .  . 

d.  Black  Ash  (Fraxinus  nigra) . .  . 

e.  Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  viridis)  .  . 

/.  Oregon  Ash  (Fraxinus  oregona) -4° 

ELM  (Ulmus). 
Section  6.    Distribution.    Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood. 

Uses.  •  Landscape  Value  of  Trees,  etc.  .  .  •     41 

a.  White  Elm  (Ulmus  americana) ...  •     42 

b.  Cork  Elm  (Ulmus  racemosa)  .  .  43 

c.  Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm  (Ulmus  pubescens)  . .  44 

d.  Wing  Elm  (Ulmus  alata)  .  .  -45 

MAPLE  (Acer). 
Section  7.     Distribution.     Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood. 

Uses.     Maple  Sugar.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 46 

a.  Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple  (Acer  Saccharum) 48 

b.  Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum) 49 

c.  Red  Maple,  Swamp  Maple  (Acer  rubrum) .  50 

d.  Oregon  Maple  (Acer  macrophyllum) 51 

e.  Boxelder,  Ash-leaved  Maple  (Acer  negundo) 52 

WALNUT  (Juglans) 

Section  8.  Historical.  Black  Walnut  in  Gun  Stocks.  Structural  and 
Physical  Properties  of  Woods.  Burl.  White  Walnut.  English 
Walnut.  Circassian  Walnut.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees, 
etc 53 

a.  Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigra),  English  Walnut  (Juglans  regia)     55 

b.  White  Walnut,  Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea) 56 

HICKORY  (Hicoria). 

Section  9.  Distribution.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood. 
Uses.  "Second-growthl"  Hickory.  Pecan.  Botanical  Characteris- 
tics of  Trees,  etc 57 

a.  Shagbark  (Hicoria  ovata) 58 

b.  Pignut  (Hicoria  glabra) 59 

c.  Mocker  Nut  (Hicoria  alba) 60 

d.  Pecan  (Hicoria  pecan) .61 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  vil 

CHESTNUT;  CHINQUAPIN  (Castanea). 

PAOB 

Section  10.     Distribution.     Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood. 

Uses.    Famous  Trees.    Nuts.   Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  62 

a.  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata) 64 

6.  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila),.  (Castanopsis  chrysophylla). .  65 

BEECH,  IRONWOOD  (Fagus),  (Carpinus,  Ostrya,  etc.),  etc. 

Section  1 1.  Distribution.  Early  Uses  of  Beech.  Structural  and  Physi- 
cal Properties  of  Woods.  Uses.  Enumeration  of  Species  Affording 

"Ironwood" 66 

a.  Beech  (Fagus  atropunicea) 68 

6.  Ironwood,  Blue  Beech  (Carpinus  caroliniana) 69 

c.  Ironwood,  Hop  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  virginiana) 70 

SYCAMORE  (Platanus). 

Section  12.     Confusion  of  Names.     Historical,  Structural  and  Physical 

Properties  of  Wood.     Uses.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  71 

a.  Sycamore,  Buttonball  (Platanus  occidentalis) 72 

b.  California  Sycamore  (Platanus  racemosa) 73 

BIRCH  (Betula). 

Section  13.  Distribution.  History  and  Uses  of  Bark.  Structural  and 
Physical  Properties  of  Wood.  Uses  of  Wood.  Commercial  Divi- 
sions of  Wood.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 74 

a.  White  Birch  (Betula  populifolia) 76 

b.  Paper  Birch  (Betula  papyrifera) 77 

c.  Red  Birch  (Betula  nigra) 78 

d.  Yellow  Birch  (Betula  lutea) 79 

e.  Sweet,  Cherry  Birch  (Betula  lenta) 80 

LOCUST;  MESQUITE  (Robinia,  Gleditsia,  Prosopis). 

Section  14.  Confusion  of  Names.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of 
Wood.  Uses.  Structural  Value  of  Black  Locust.  Durability  and 

Peculiarities  of  Mesquite.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.. .  81 

a.  Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia) 83 

b.  Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  triacanthos) 84 

c.  Mesquite  (Prosopis  juliflora) t 85 

WHITEWOOD  OR  TULIP-TREE  WOOD;  POPLAR  OR  COTTONWOOD; 
CUCUMBER-TREE  WOOD;  BASSWOOD  (Liriodendron),  (Populus), 
(Magnolia),  (Tilia). 

Section    15.     Structural   Relations.     Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Wood. 

Confusion  of  Names.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 86 

a.  Whitewood,    Tulip-tree    or    Yellow    Poplar    (Liriodendron 

tulipifera) 88 

b.  Poplar,  Large  Tooth  Aspen  (Populus  grandidentata) 89 


Yiii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

FAM 

r   Pnttonwood  (Populus  deltoides) •  •  •     9° 

d.  ^Ick  CottoLood  (Populus  trichocarpa),  Balsam  (Populus 

balsamifera) 

e   Cucumber-tree  (Magnolia  acuminata) 

/.  Basswood,  Linden  (Tilia  americana) 

WILLOW  (Salix). 
Section  16.    Distribution.     Historical.     Properties  and  Uses  of  Wood. 

Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 

a.  Black  Willow  (Salix  nigra) ;  White  Willow  (Salix  alba) 95 

CATALPA  (Catalpa),  etc. 

Section  17.    Structural  Values.    Properties  of  Woods.     Botanical  Char- 
acteristics of  Trees,  etc — 

a.  Catalpa  (Catalpa  speciosa) 

b.  Catalpa  (Catalpa  catalpa) 9» 

SASSAFRAS;  MULBERRY  (Sassafras),  (Morus),  etc. 

Section  18.    Historical.    Properties  of  Sassafras  Wood.     Properties  of 
Mulberry  Wood.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  . 

a.  Sassafras  (Sassafras  officinale)  .... 

b.  Mulberry,  Red  Mulberry  (Morus  rubra)  .  .  .    101 

BUCKEYE;  HORSE  CHESTNUT  (Aesculus). 

Section  19.    Structural  and  Botanical  Relationships.    Localities.    Prop- 
erties and  Uses  of  Wood .102 

a.  Horse  Chestnut  (Aesculus  hippocastanum) .103 

b.  Ohio  Buckeye  (Aesculus  glabra) .103 

c.  Sweet  and  California  Buckeyes  (A.  octandra  and  A.  califor- 

nica) .104 

GUM  (Liquidambar,  Nyssa). 

Section  20.    Botanical  and  Structural  Relationships.     General  Proper- 
ties and  Uses  of  Woods.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc  . . .    105 
c.  Sweet  Gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua) 106 

b.  Sour  Gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica) 107 

c.  Cotton  Gum,  Tupelo  (N.  aquatica) ;  Sour  Gum  (N.  ogeche) . .    108 

HOLLY;  BOXWOOD;  LIGNUM VIT-E  (Ilex),  (Buxus  Cornus), 
(Guajacum),  etc. 

Section  21.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties;  also  Uses  of  Holly,  of 
Boxwood,  and  of  Lignumvitae  Woods.  Sources.  Substitutes  for 
Boxwood,  i.e.,  Flowering  Dogwood,  Mexican  Persimmon  and  Rose 

Bay.    Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 109 

c.  Holly  (Ilex  opaca) in 

b.  Dogwood  (Cornus  florida) 112 

c.  Lignumvitse  (Guajacum  sanctum) 113 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  ix 

LAUREL  (Magnolia,  Rhododendron,  Arbutus,  etc.),  etc. 

PAGE 

Section  22.     Application  of  Name  Laurel.     Structural  Peculiarities  and 

Uses  of  Several  Products 114 

a.  Mountain  Laurel  (Umbellularia  californica),  etc 115 

b.  Madrona  (Arbutus  menziesii),  etc 116 

PERSIMMON;  OSAGE  ORANGE;  CHERRY  (Diospyros),  (Maclura), 
(Prunus),  etc. 

Section  23.     Range.     Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Persimmon 

Wood,  of  Osage  Orange  Wood,  of  Cherry  Wood 117 

a.  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana),  Ebony 118 

b.  Osage  Orange  (Maclura  aurantiaca) 119. 

c.  Cherry  (Prunus  serotina) 120 

TEAK;  GREENHEART  (Tectona),  (Nectandra),  etc. 

Section  24.     Asiatic  Teak.     African  Teak.     Structural  Peculiarities  and 

Uses  of  Teak  Wood.     Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Greenheart  121 

a.  Teak  (Tectona  grandis),  Rosewood 122 

b.  Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodicei),  etc 123 

MAHOGANY  (Swietenia,  Khaya,  Soymida,  Cedrela,  etc.),  etc. 

Section  25.  Applications  of  Name  Mahogany.  Sources  of  Supply. 
Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities.  Also  Uses  of  Wood,  Veneers, 

Spanish  Cedar,  White  Mahogany,  Satinwood 124 

a.  Mahogany  (Swietenia  mahagoni) 126 

b.  White  Mahogany  (Tabeuia  donnell-smithii) 127 

c.  Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar  (Cedrela  odorata) 128 

EUCALYPTUS  (Eucalyptus). 

Section  26.  Localities.  Common  Names.  Great  Size.  Rapid  Growth 
and  Sanitary  Properties  of  Trees.  Structural  Properties  of  Jarrah, 
Karri  and  Tuart  Woods,  etc.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  129 

a.  Jarrah  (Eucalyptus  marginata) 131 

b.  Karri  (Eucalyptus  diversicolor) 132 

c.  Tuart  (Eucalyptus  gomphocephala) 132 

d.  Blue  Gum,  Fever  Tree   (Eucalyptus  globulus); 134 

(also  other  species.) 

NEEDLELEAF    OR   SOFT    WOODS. 

Section  27.     Localities.     Historical.     Structural  and  Physical  Properties. 

Uses.     Botanical  Characteristics.     General  Information 135 

PINE  (Pinus). 

Section    28.     Structural    and    Physical    Properties.     Uses.     Botanical 

Characteristics 136 


TABLE  CF  CONTENTS. 
Soft  ^.-Structural  and  Physica!  Parties.    Importance.    Sources 
tural  and  PhysW  PropertieaV  'importaace.   Source 


of  Supply,  etc  ..............  •  •  •  •  .....  0 

a   White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus)  ................... 

6.  White  Pine  (Pinus  flexilis)  ................. 

c.  Sugar  Pine  (Pinus  lambertiana)  ............. 

d   White  Pine  (Pinus  monticolo),  etc.  . 

e.  Georgia,  Hard,  Yellow  or  Longleaf  Pine  (Pinus  palustns).  . 

/   Cuban  Pine  (Pinus  heterophylla)  ...... 

g.  Shortleaf  Pine,  Yellow  Pine  (Pinus  echinata)  ............. 

h.  Loblolly  Pine  (Pinus  tsda)  ...... 

i   Bull  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Western  Pine  (Pinus  ponderosa),  etc. 
/.  Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa),  etc  ............ 

fc.  Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida)  ............ 

I.  Northern  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Dantzic  Pine  (Pinus  sylvestris) 

KAURI  PINE  (Dammara). 

Section    29.     Descriptive.    Structural    and    Physical    Characteristics. 
"Kauri  Gum,"  etc  ................. 

a    Kauri    Pine   (Dammara    australis):     Varnishes,    "Gums, 
Resins,  etc  ......... 

SPRUCE  (Picea). 

Section  30.    Localities.    Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities.     Commer- 

cial Divisions.     Botanical  Characteristics  .......  •  *54 

a.  Black  Spruce  (Picea  nigra)  .............................  *56 

b.  Red  Spruce  (Picea  rubens)  .............................  1S6 

c.  White  Spruce  (Picea  alba)  ..............................  *57 

d.  White  Spruce  (Picea  engelmanni)  .......................  »58 

e.  Sitka  Spruce  (Picea  sitchensis)  ..........................  159 

DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  (Pseudotsuga). 

Section  31.    Great  Size  of  Trees.     Localities.     Structural  and  Physical 

Peculiarities  of  Wood.     Botanical  Characteristics.  ..  ......    160 

a.  Douglas  or  Red  Spruce  or  Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  ......    161 

FIH  (Abies). 

Section  32.    Sources  of  Supply.     Structural  and  Physical  Characteristics. 

Confusion  of  Names.     Botanical  Characteristics  .................  162 

a.  Balsam  Fir  (Abies  balsamea)  ...........................  163 

6.  Great  Silver  Fir  (Abies  grandis)  .........................  164 

c.  White  Fir  (Abies  concolor)  .............................  165 

d.  Red  Fir  (Abies  magnifica)  ..............................  166 

e.  Red  Fir.    Noble  Fir  (Abies  nobilis)  .....................  167 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  xi 

HEMLOCK  (Tsuga). 

PAGE 

Section    33.     Distribution.     Structural    and    Physical    Peculiarities   of 

Wood.     Botanical  Characteristics 168 

a.  Hemlock  (Tsuga  canadensis) 169 

b.  Western  Hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla) 169 

LARCH;  TAMARACK  (Larix). 

Section  34.     Historical.     Sources.     Structural  and  Physical  Peculiari- 
ties.    Botanical  Characteristics 170 

a.  Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix  americana) 171 

b.  Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix  occidentalis) 172 

c.  Larch,  European  (Larix  europea) 172 

CEDAR  (Cedrus,  Thuya,  Chamaecyparis,  Libocedrus,  Juniperus). 

Section  35.     Confusion  of  Names.     Historical.     Structural  and  Physical 

Peculiarities  of  Wood.     Uses.     Commercial  Divisions,  etc 173 

a.  Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana) 175 

b.  Juniper  (Juniperus  occidentalis),  etc 176 

c.  White  Cedar,  Arborvitse,  (Thuya  occidentalis) 177 

d.  Canoe  Cedar,  Arborvitse,  Giant  Arborvitae  (Thuya  plicata) .  .  178 

e.  White  Cedar  (Chamaecyparis  thyoides) 179 

/.  Port   Orford  Cedar,   Lawson  Cypress   (Chamaecyparis  law- 

soniana) ,  etc 1 80 

g.  Yellow  Cedar,  Yellow  Cypress,  Sitka  Cypress  (Chamaecyparis 

nootkatensis) 181 

h.  Incense  Cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens) 182 

CYPRESS  (Cupressus,  Taxodium). 

Section  36.     Confusion  of  Names.     Sources.     Historical.     Structural  and 

Physical  Peculiarities.     Commercial  Divisions.     Fungus  Diseases.  .    183 
a.  Cypress,  Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  distichum) 185 

REDWOOD  (Sequoia). 

Section  37.     Locality.     Peculiarities  of  Trees.     Structural  and  Physical 

Qualities  of  Wood.     Uses.     Mammoth  Trees 186 

a.  Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens) 188 

b.  Giant  Redwood  (Sequoia  washingtoniana) 188 


PART    III. 
ENDOGENOUS  SERIES. 

Section  38.     Definitions.     Cellular  Structure.     Structural  and  Physical 

Peculiarities  of  Eodogenous  Wood.     Uses.     General  Information . .    189 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PALM  (PALMACE.E). 

PAGE 

Section  39.     Localities.     Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities  of  Wood. 

Uses.     Botanical  Characteristics 191 

a.  Cabbage  Palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto) 192 

b.  Washington  Palm  (Washingtonia  filifera) 193 

c.  Date  Palm  (Phcenix  dactylifera) 191 

YUCCA  (Yucca). 

Section  40.     Localities.     Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities  of  Wood. 

Uses,  etc 1 94 

a.  Joshua  Tree,  Yucca  (Yucca  arborescens) 195 

BAMBOO  (Bambusae). 

Section  41.     Botanical  Characteristics.     Structural  and  Physical  Pecu- 
liarities of  Wood.     Growth.     Uses  in  the  Orient.     Possibilities  in 

America,  etc 196 

a.  Bamboo  (Bambusa  vulgaris) ig& 


LIST  OF    PLATES. 


Frontispiece.     Live  Oak  (Quercus  virginiana). 

Plate  2.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD— Yearly  Rings  or  Layers. 

"  3.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD— Medullary  or  Pith  Ray. 

"  4.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD — Cross-sections  Enlarged, 

"  5.  Oak  (Quercus  alba). 

"  6.  Ash  (Fraxinus  americana). 

"  7.  Elm  (Ulmus  americana). 

"  8.  Maple  (Acer  saccharum). 

"  9.  Walnut  (Juglansj. 

"  10.  Hickory  (Hicoria  ovata). 

«'  II.  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata). 

"  12.  Beech  (Fagus). 

"  13.  Sycamore  (Platanus  occiden tails). 

"  14.  Birch  (Betula). 

"  15.  Ix)cust  (Robinia,  Gleditsia). 

"  16.  Whitewood  (Liriodendron  tulipifera). 

"  17.  Black  Willow  (Salix  nigra). 

"  18.  Catalpa  (Catalpa). 

"  19.  Sassafras  (Sassafras  officinale). 

"  20.   Horse  Chestnut  (^Esculus  hippocastanum). 

41  21.   Sweet  Gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua). 

«'  22.  Holly,  Boxwood,  Lignumvitse  (Ilex),  (Buxus,  Cornus),  (Guajacum). 

41  23.  Persimmon,  Osage  Orange,  Cherry  (Diospyros),  (Madura),  (Prunus). 

««  24.  Teak,  Greenheart  (Tectona),  (Nectandra). 

"  25.  Eucalyptus  (Eucalyptus). 

"  26.  Pine  (Pinus). 

"  27.   Black  Spruce  (Picea  nigra). 

"  28.  Douglas  Spruce  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia). 

"  29.    Hemlock  (Tsuga). 

"  30.   Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix). 

"  31.  Cedar  (Cedrus,  Thuya,  etc.). 

'  32-  Cypress  (Cupressus,  Taxodium). 

'  33-   Redwood  (Sequoia). 

"  34-  ENDOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 

"  35-  PALM  (PALMACE^E). 

"  36.  Yucca  (Yucca). 

"  37-   Bamboo  (Bambusae). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

NAMES     AND     LOCALITIES. 

"  Check  List  of  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States,  their  Names 
and  Ranges,"  Sudworth.  (U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  17.)* 

FEATURES  OF  TREES,  BOTANIES. 

Prof.  Sargent's  "  Silva  of  North  America";  Michaux  and 
Nuttall's  "North  American  Silva";  Apgars  "Trees  of  Northern 
United  States";  Publications  U.  S.  Forestry  Division;  "  Our  Native 
Trees"  Keeler;  "Familiar  Trees,"  Mathews;  "Timber  Trees  and 
Forests  of  North  Carolina,"  Pinchot  &  Ashe  (N.  C.  Geological 
Survey  Bulletin  No.  6);  "Report  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massa- 
chusetts," Emerson;  jjKVIanual  of  Botany,"  Gray;  "Plants," 
Coulter;  "  Illustrated  Flor^of  U.  S.,"  Britton  and  Brown;  etc.,  etc. 
"Botanical  Gazette;"  "Guide  to  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  New  England 
by  their  Leaves,"  Bradley  Whidder,  Boston  ;  Prof.  Green's  "Forestry 
in  Minnesota;"  Bailey's  "Cyclopedia  American  Horticulture;" 
"Manual  of  Trees  of  North  America,"  Sargent.  Handbook  of  Trees 
of  Northern  United  States,  Hough. 

COLOR,    APPEARANCE    OR   GRAIN    OF   WOOD. 

Jesup  Collection  at  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City; 
Hough's  "American  Woods"  (sections}. 

STRUCTURAL   QUALITIES    AND    USES    OF   WOODS. 

"Timber,"  Roth  (Bulletin  No.  10,  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.};  Vol.  IX, 
Tenth  U.  S.  Census;  Prof.  Sargent's  "  Catalogue  Jesup  Collections" ; 
Prof.  J.  B.  Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction" ;  Prof.  Thurston's 
"  Materials  of  Engineering,"  Part  I;  Dr.  F.  E.  Kidder's  "  Inspection 
of  Materials  and  Workmanship. "  Allusions  in  numerous  publica- 
tions U.  S.  Forestry  Division;  "Wood,"  Boulger  (Arnold,  London); 
"Timbers  of  Commerce,"  Stone  (William  Rider  &  Son,  London). 
Manual  of  North  American  Gymnosperms  Penhallow  (Ginn  &  Co). 

*  The  names  Division  of  Forestry,  Bureau  of  Forestry  and  Forest  Service, 
have  been  successfully  used  to  denote  this  division  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

XV 


xv  j  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

WEIGHTS    AND    MODULI. 

Circular  No.  15,  U.  S.  Forestry  Division;  Prof.  J.  B.  Johnson's 
"Materials  of  Construction";  Mr.  S.  P.  Sharpless'  Tables  for  the 
U  S.  Census  (Vol.  IX,  Tenth  Census;  also  Executive  Document 
No.  5,  48th  Congress,  ist  Session,  and  also  Sargent's ^ "  Catalogue 
Jesup  Collection"};  Prof.  Lanza's  "  Applied  Mechanics." 

AMERICAN    SPECIES. 

See  foot-notes  to  species  in  question. 

FOREIGN    SPECIES. 

Thos.  Lazlelfs  ' '  Timber  and  Timber  Trees ";  Report  on  Forests 
of  Western  Australia  by  J.  Ednie  Brown ;  Catalogue  Kew  Botanical 
Gardens,  London;  Works  Baron  Fcrd.  von  Mueller;  "American 
Lumber  in  Foreign  Markets"  (Special  Consular  Reports,  Vol.  XI, 
U.  S.  State  Dept.);  Stevenson's  "  Trees  of  Commerce";  also  see 
foot-notes,  species  in  question;  Captain  Ahern's  "Important  Philip- 
pine Woods." 

GENERAL. 

"Forestry  for  Farmers"  Fernow,  and  other  U.  S.  Forestry 
Division  Publications,  Vol.  IX,  Tenth  U.  S.  Census;  Hough's 
American  Woods  (text};  The  Forester;  The  Northwestern  Lumber- 
man; The  (New  Orleans)  Lumber  Trade  Journal;  The  New  York 
Lumber  Trade  Journal;  The  Timber  Trades  Journal  (London); 
"Lumber  Trade  of  U.  S. "  (Bureau  Statistics  U.  S.  Treas.  Dept.); 
Trees  in  Winter,  Huntington. 

HISTORICAL. 

Brockhaus,  Konversations-Lexikon ;  etc. 

MEDICINAL    PROPERTIES. 

U.  S.  Dispensatory. 

Books  particularly  useful  to  beginners  are  in  italics.  Names  are 
repeated  when  books  could  not  be  particularly  classed  under  one 
heading.  Also  see  foot-notes  under  subjects  in  questions. 


THE   PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  properties  of  the  substances  employed 
in  construction  causes  confidence  and  permits  smaller  margins 
beyond  calculated  requirements  than  would  otherwise  be 
possible. 

Wood  is  one  of  the  primary  materials  of  construction;  the 
others  are  stone  and  iron.  These  principal  substances  possess 
distinguishing  peculiarities,  and  each  one  includes  a  series  of 
individuals  that  are  also  distinguished  from  one  another  by 
reason  of  minor  characteristics.  Iron  thus  includes  the  steels 
and  cast  irons,  while  stone  includes  brick,  concrete  and  other 
artificial  products,  as  well  as  sandstones  and  granites  that  cccur 
in  nature.  Wood  differs  from  the  other  primary  structural 
substances.  It  is  the  only  one  that  is  organic. 

Information  relating  to  the  general  properties  of  wood  is  as 
desirable  as  information  relating  to  properties  of  steel,  stone  or 
cement.  Engineers  use  more  wood  than  any  other  set  of 
men,  yet  general  facts  aside  from  those  relating  to  strength 
are  often  associated  with  the  province  of  the  botanist  or 
forester. 

Wood  is  the  solid  part  of  trees,  the  part  that,  when  other- 
wise suitable,  is  used  in  construction.  It  consists  of  a  ground- 
work of  starch-like  substance  known  as  cellulose*  permeated 
by  materials  collectively  known  as  lignin;  there  are  also  secre- 

*  Flax  is  almost  pure  cellulose. 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

tions  as  resins,  coloring  matter  and  water.  The  small  proportion 
of  mineral  in  wood  is  evident  as  ash.* 

When  heated,  wood  first  gives  off  about  one  quarter  of  its 
weight  as  water,  after  which  the  volatile,  inflammable  gases 
separate  from  a  solid  base  of  carbon  which  itself  finally  con- 
sumes with  much  heat  but  no  flame  and  releases  the  residue 
of  ash. 

Wood  is  preferred  because  it  is  easily  worked  and  light  in 
weight.  In  many  positions  it  is  as  durable  as  iron.  It  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  and  is  stronger  than  is 
generally  supposed.  The  tensile  strength  of  a  bar  of  hickory 
may  exceed  the  tensile  strength  of  a  similar  bar  of  wrought  iron 
of  the  same  length  and  weight. f 

Wood  is  not  homogeneous,  like  metal  and  most  of  the 
stones,  but  is  more  complicated  and  so  variable  that  several 
portions  of  the  same  tree  often  exhibit  widely  different  qualities. 

The  consumption  of  wood  has  never  decreased,  although 
metals  and  stones  have  been  substituted  for  it  in  many  posi- 
tions. In  England  the  per  capita  consumption  more  than 
doubled  in  the  fifty  years  preceding  (1895)  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  nearly  all  of  the  wood  used  in  that  country  had  to  be  im- 
ported. |  The  total  yearly  mill  value  of  wood  products  in  the 
United  States  is  now  (1906)  over  nine  times  as  great  as  its  com- 
bined product  of  gold  and  silver,  or  twice  as  great  as  the  value 
of  its  wheat  crops.  § 

*  Wood,  timber  and  lumber  may  not  mean  the  same.  Properly  speaking  all 
woody  tissue  is  wood,  but  roots  and  branches  contain  much  wood  that  is  not 
suitable  for  construction.  Wood  that  is  suitable  although  not  necessarily  ready 
for  construction  is  timber,  and  wood  that  is  not  only  suitable  but  ready  for  con- 
struction is  lumber. 

The  word  timber  may  thus  include  living  trees  in  the  forest,  as  well  as  logs 
and  shaped  pieces,  whereas  lumber  refers  only  to  boards,  planks,  beams  and 
other  sawn  pieces  of  limited  sizes  and  then  only  in  America.  The  term  lumber, 
which  is  not  sharply  definable,  is  seldom  used  abroad. 

t  Roth,  1896  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  p.  392. 

%  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  10,  p.  5. 

§  A  conservative  estimate  places  the  yearly  mill  value  of  wood  products  at 
$1,100,000,000.  The  spring  and  winter  wheat  crops  of  1905  were  together 
valued  at  $5 18,372, 727.  The  production  of  gold  and  silver  (1904)  was  valued 
at  $112,871.026. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

Nearly  five  hundred  species  of  trees  grow  in  the  United 
States,*  and  there  are  others  that  are  peculiar  to  other 
countries,  yet  the  great  mass  of  wood  used  in  construction 
comes  from  but  few  of  them.  Dr.  Sudworth  excludes  all  but 
100  species  in  his  "Trees  of  the  United  States  Important  to 
Forestry,"  while  a  Treasury  Department  Summary  f  contains 
the  statement  that  but  sixteen  kinds  of  hard  wood  were  quoted 
in  Chicago  markets  on  the  first  of  September  in  the  year 
nineteen  hundred. 

Woods  appear  to  be  more  numerous  than  is  actually  the  case, 
because  several  names  are  often  applied  to  a  single  product. 
Woods  have  been  brought  long  distances  because  the  same 
ones  nearer  by  were  not  recognized  when  called  by  different 
local  names.  The  longleaf  or  southern  pine  (Pinus  paluslris} 
has  about  thirty  common  names.  Such  confusion  can  only  be 
avoided  by  regarding  the  recognized  botanical  nomenclature. 

Conditions  are  changing;  many  woods  that  were  formerly 
common  are  now  quite  scarce  while  others  that  have  been  less 
familiar  must  be  employed.  Information  is  increasing  with 
regard  to  valuable  properties  possessed  by  species  that  have 
been  less  familiar. 

The  botanical  name  of  a  plant  consists  cf  two  principal 
terms  denoting  genus  and  species.  Quercus,  for  example,  is 
the  generic  name  including  all  species  of  oak.  Alba,  rubra, 
ar.d  others  are  specific  names  denoting  the  said  species. 
Quercus  alba  and  Quercus  rubra  are  completed  terms.  Genera 
are  not  fixed  but  differ  with  authorities,  so  that  the  abbreviated 
name  of  the  botanist  responsible  for  the  classification  adopted 
is  often  added,  as  Quercus  alba  Linn,  and  Ulmus  fulva  Michx. 

A  species  is  a  collection  of  individuals  that  might  well  have 
sprung  from  some  single  root.  A  genus  is  a  collection  of  related 
species.  Genera  are  gathered  into  families.  Families  and  genera 

*  Dr.  Fernow  credits  495  species  to  the  United  States  (Introduction  to  U.  S. 
Forestry  Bui.  17);  Prof.  Sargent  counting  species  only  and  excluding  varieties, 
notes  422  species  (Silva  of  North  America). 

f  (1900,  p.  1081).  The  statement  is  also  made  that  the  principal  timbers  of 
commerce  in  the  United  States  are  the  species  known  popularly  as  pine,  fir,  oak, 
hickory,  hemlock,  ash,  poplar,  maple,  cypress,  spruce,  cedar  and  walnut. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

differ  with  authorities.    A  variety  includes  individuals  differing 
slightly  from  accepted  species.     Its  name  when  exi          is  part 
of   the  specific    name.      « Quercus   robur    var.    pedunculate 
specifies   a  variety  (pedunculate)  of    "red"   or  strong   (robur) 
oak  (Quercus).    A  variety  of  one  botanist  is  sometimes  a  c 
tinct  species  of  another. 

Information  relating  to  wood  must  include  some  information 
relating  to  the  tree. 

A  tree  has  been  defined*  as  "a  perennial  plant  which 
from  the  ground  with  a  single,  permanent,  woody,  self-support- 
ing trunk  or  stem  ordinarily  attaining  a  height  at  least  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  feet." 

A  tree  has  three  principal  parts  or  systems:  they  are  the 
roots,  the  trunk,  and  the  foliage.  Roots  and  foliage  are  here 
regarded  only  as  they  are  means  by  which  wood  is  manufactured. 
The  root  system  of  a  tree  consists  of  large  branch-roots  that 
enable  the  tree  to  stand  firmly  in  the  ground  and  small  hair-roots 
that  emerge  from  the  larger  ones  to  gather  moisture  and  chemi- 
cals from  the  soil.  The  small  roots  are  very  sensitive  and  are 
the  primary  portions  of  the  system.  The  larger  roots  serve  as 
canals  through  which  the  fluids  collected  by  the  smaller  ones 
travel  upward  toward  the  trunk  and  foliage. 

The  foliage  of  a  tree  separates  carbon  from  the  air  and 
prepares  it  to  unite  with  the  faintly  mineralized  water  that 
arises  from  the  roots.  The  preparation  of  sap  is  thus  com- 
pleted by  the  foliage.  The  movement  of  fluids  in  a  tree  is  a 
continuous  movement.  Up  and  down  currents  move  together; 
the  one  in  the  inner  sapwood  and  the  other  through  the  outer 
sapwood.  Sap  does  not  rise  in  the  spring  and  fall  in  the 
autumn. 

The  sap  thus  completed  in  the  foliage  descends  through 
the  outer  sapwood  and  deposits  a  layer  of  mucilage -like  sub- 
stance between  the  sapwood  and  the  bark.  This  young 
substance  or  cambium  is  shortly  quickened  into  life.  Cells 
develop,  some  of  which  form  a  layer  of  new  wood  while  others 

*  Century  Dictionary. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

form  bast  or  bark.  This  ring  or  layer  method  of  growth  does 
not  apply  with  trees  such  as  palms.* 

Moisture  is  the  most  important  element  that  the  tree  draws 
from  the  soil.  Trees  require  comparatively  little  mineral 
matter  and  this  is  in  large  part  returned  when  they  shed  their 
leaves  in  the  autumn.  Carbon  is  the  principal  food  of  trees 
and  carbon  is  derived  from  the  atmosphere. 

Leaves  perform  their  functions  through  the  instrumentality 
of  chlorophyll,  a  substance  upon  which  they  depend  for  their 
color.  The  health  of  a  tree  depends  upon  that  of  its  foliage, 
and  the  health  of  a  tree  can  be  told  by  the  condition  of  its 
foliage. 

Trees  need  sunlight,  and  are  influenced  by  the  way  in  which 
they  receive  it.  Sunlight  reaches  the  sides  of  trees  that  stand 
by  themselves  and  these  trees  produce  many  branches.  The 
sides  of  trees  that  stand  together  in  the  forest  are  shaded  and 
the  lower  branches  of  such  trees  do  not  thrive.  The  foliage  of 
forest  trees  reaches  upward  toward  the  sunlight;  their  trunks 
are  thus  lengthened  and  wood  is  deposited  upon  the  trunks 
rather  than  upon  the  branches. 

In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  influence  the  shape  of  any  tree. 
A  full-branched  tree  such  as  is  prized  in  landscape  effects  or  a 
long  straight  trunk  that  is  valued  by  lumbermen  may  be  obtained 
by  the  required  direction  of  sunlight.  Lower  branches  die  and 
fall  away  in  forests,  or  they  may  be  removed  by  pruning,  and 
in  either  case  wood  diverted  from  the  branches  will  concentrate 
upon  the  trunk. 

The  energy  of  a  young  tree  is  largely  expended  upon  the 
development  of  its  roots  and  foliage.  The  trunk  grows  very 
slowly  during  this  interval.  It  is  particularly  wasteful  to  cut 
down  young  trees  and  saplings  just  as  wood  is  about  to  be 
diverted  to  the  trunk,  f 

Top-soil  of  forests  is  porous  and  loose.  Roots  break  the 
originally  compacted  ground  and  leaves  and  twigs  falling  from 

*  See  Exogens,  p.  189. 

f  In  Europe  branches  removed  by  pruning  are  used  as  firewood.  These 
trimmings  take  the  place  of  some  better  material  that  would  otherwise  be  used 
for  fuel.  Practices  are  much  more  wasteful  in  America. 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  trees  protect  it  so  that  it  remains  soft.  The  mixture  of 
leaves  and  loose  top-soil  forms  what  is  known  as  humis.  Humis 
receives  and  protects  young  seeds,  and  assists  the  small  hair- 
roots  which  cannot  so  easily  penetrate  hardened  soil. 

Humis  also  acts  by  equalizing  the  flow  of  streams.  Rain 
rolls  quickly  from  sun-baked  or  otherwise  compacted  soil,  but 
humis  permits  the  rain  drops  to  pass  through  into  the  protected 
sponge  below  and  then  reduces  evaporation  from  this  sponge. 
It  is  not  known  that  forests  influence  rain-fall  but  their  value 
in  regulating  stream-flow  is  beyond  estimate. 

Forestry  includes  the  planting  and  management  of  forests 
and  is  agriculture  as  distinguished  from  lumbering.  Forests  are 
not  destroyed  for  immediate  profit  but  are  maintained  so  as  to 
secure  recurring  crops  of  matured  and  desirable  trees.  Appro- 
priate species  are  planted,  humis  is  preserved,  fire  risks  are  les- 
sened and  saplings  are  planted  as  the  riper  trees  are  cut  down. 
Forestry  calls  for  small  profits  but  these  continue  from  year  to  year, 
whereas  the  lumberman  receives  larger  profits  once  and  finally. 

The  size  and  character  of 
the  trunk,  and  the  range,  local- 
ity, or  distribution  of  the  tree, 
have  much  to  do  with  the 
utility  of  the  wood,  since  large 
or  perfect  timbers  cannot  be 
derived  from  species  character- 
ized by  small  or  crooked  trees, 
and  since  wood  is  always  more 
used  if  it  is  widely  distributed 
so  as  to  be  easily  available.* 


FIG.  i.— SOME  WOOD  ELEMENTS. 


Wood  is  made  up  of  cell- 
structures;  as,  the  true  fibre, 
which  originates  from  several 

cells;   the  tracheid  (tra-ke-id),  which  originates   from  one;  the 
vessel,  which  is  a  short,  wide  tube  joined  vertically  end  to  end 


*  Fossils  show  that  many  species  covered  wider  ranges  than  at  present. 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

with  others  of  its  kind;  the  pith-ray;  the  resin-duct,  and  others, — 
all  of  which  are  often  popularly  referred  to  as  fibres. 

The  character  and  the  arrangement  of  cell-structures  differ 
with  species.  Wood  is  hard,  soft,  light,  heavy,  tough,  porous, 
elastic,  or  othenvise,  because  of  these  differences.  Appearance 
is  affected,  and  woods  may  be  distinguished  from  one  another, 
because  of  this  fact. 

The  character  of  wood  not  only  depends  upon  the  properties 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  cell  structures,  but  it  also  depends 
upon  the  characteristics  and  the  quantities  of  substances  asso- 
ciated with,  although  actually  foreign  to,  the  cell  structures. 
Sap  or  pure  water  is  thus  within  although  not  readily  part  of  the 
wood  tissue.  Water  distends  and  weakens  cell  structures  which 
are  then  more  pliable. 

Most  wood  is  used  in  "construction,"  that  is,  in  mines, 
railways,  houses  and  ships,  where  demand  is  for  size  or 
quantity,  and  where  finish  and  appearance  amount  to  but  little. 
Much  wood  is  used  in  decoration  and  furniture,  where  appear- 
ance, appropriateness,  and  finish  are  called  for;  but  these 
woods,  although  much  in  evidence,  are  infinitely  less  in  quantity 
than  those  employed  in  construction.  Some  wood  is  required 
for  implements,  turnery,  carvings  and  small-piece  work,  where 
size  is  secondary  and  where  qualities  such  as  hardness,  fine 
grain,  and  uniformity,  controllable  in  small  pieces,  are  primary. 
Some  wood  is  used  indirectly,  as  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper-pulp,  gunpowder  and  chemicals.  There  are  also  by- 
products of  trees,  such  as  tanbark,  turpentine,  resin,  nuts  and 
sugar. 

The  weight,  strength,  and  other  measurable  properties  of 
wood  are  variable.  Weight  varies  from  day  to  day  as  water 
is  absorbed  and  evaporated.  Strength  differs  with  grain,  age, 
moisture,  specific  gravity,  and  many  other  things.  Two  pieces 
from  different  portions  of  the  same  tree  differ  from  each  other. 
The  proportions  of  sap  and  heart  wood  are  seldom  constant. 
Results  from  small  specimens  may  differ  from  those  obtained 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

from  larger  ones  *  The  botanical  accuracy  of  a  specimen  is 
not  always  certain,  therefore  figures  relating  to  the  physical 
"operties  of  wood  should  be  employed  with  greater  caution 
than  those  relating  to  the  more  homogeneous  metals. 

Many  of  the  experiments  conducted  to  establish  statements 
regarding  the  physical  properties  of  wood  have  been  defective 
in  that  while  the  conclusions  were  correct  as  applied  to  the 
specimens  immediately  studied,  such  specimens  did  not  stand 
for  the  species  at  large.      The   recognition  of  difficulties    t 
selection  of  specimens,  the  scientific  standardizing  of 
so  that  results  could  be  generally  utilized,  as  distinct  from  the 
simple  manipulation  of  specimens  in  testing-machines,  have  not 
been  exhaustively  attempted  until  recently.! 

The  tests  that  have  been  made  to  obtain  measures  for  woods 
may  be  arranged  in  several  groups,  each  one  depending  upon  the 
way  in  which  test  pieces  were  selected.  The  groups  are  as 

follows : 

(i)  Professors  Fernow  and  Johnson  acknowledged  the  diffi- 
culties that  have  been  noted  in  a  series  of  experiments  conducted 
for  the  United  States  Division  of  Forestry.  The  details  con- 
sidered and  the  methods  evolved  during  this  study  were  of  such 
nature  as  to  influence  all  subsequent  efforts.  These  figures  are 
believed  by  many  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  in  existence.  The 
study  is  disappointing  in  that  results  were  obtained  for  so  few 
species.  Some  of  these  are  of  secondary  importance  com- 
mercially. 

(2)  Experiments  were  conducted  for  the  Tenth  United 
States  Census  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Sharpless  at  the  Watcrtown 
Massachusetts  Arsenal.  It  is  certain  that  the  specimens  were 
of  the  exact  species  credited;  but  in  other  ways  selections  were 
not  guided  by  factors  that  would  now  be  considered.  The 

*  Only  because  imperfections  are  moie  likely  in  larger  pieces.  Large  and 
small  pieces  of  equally  perfect  wood  are  equally  strong.  (Also  see  Publications 
U.  S.  Forestry  Div.and  J.  B.  Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  462.) 

t  It  should  be  noted  that  the  selection  and  preparation  of  specimens  require 
the  exercise  of  more  judgment  than  the  simple  testing  of  speimens,  if  the  con- 
clusions are  to  be  such  that  they  can  be  generalized  from. 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

series  is  valuable  because  it  includes  almost  all  American  species 
and  the  results  are  the  ones  that  are  quoted  in  several  text 
books. 

(3)  Some  experimenters  believe  that    practical   figures  may 
be  obtained  by  testing   large   or  life-sized   pieces  such  as  are 
actually  used  in  construction.     Professor  Lanza  is  an  advocate 
of    this    basis,    which    has    also    influenced    experiments    more 
recently   inaugurated   by    the    National    Forest    Service    under 
Professor  William  Kendrick  Hatt. 

(4)  The   later  series   of  investigations  inaugurated  by  the 
National  Forest  Service  and  to  which  allusion  was  made  in  the 
preceding  article  is  characterized  by  the  fact  that  much  attention 
is  also  paid  to  mechanical  properties  other  than  strength.     This 
study   includes    investigations    of  physical   properties    such   as 
shrinkage,  and  it  also  includes  technological  processes  such  as 
kiln  drying,  the  application  of  preservatives,  and  the  application 
of  fire  retardants;  some  of  these  matters  are  considered  as  they 
influence  strength.     This  investigation  is  in  charge  of  Professor 
William  Kendrick  Hatt. 

(5)  All  other  experiments  are  in  this  group.     Many  experi- 
ments have   been   made    from  time   to    time    which   are  not 
characterized  by  any  particular  method  or  principal  such  as 
separate   the   investigations   that    are  noted  in    the   preceding 
articles.     Details  as   to   selection  are  incompletely  given  or  are 
absolutely  lacking,  and  the  results  differ  very  widely  from  one 
another.     Such  studies  are  referred  to  as  are  noted  in  the  works 
of  Hatfield,  Lazlett,  Rankine,  Thurston,  and  many  others.     So 
far  as  is  known  some  of  these  experimenters  simply  "  broke 
specimens."     Some  series  within  this  group  are  valuable  in  that 
they  enable  comparisons.     Professor  Rankine  and  Mr.  Lazlett 
experimented  principally  upon  foreign  woods. 

The  figures  established  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Forestry  and  alluded  to  in  item  i,  page  i,  appear,  so  far  as 
they  exist,  upon  the  following  pages.  Where  they  do  not 
exist,  the  leading  spaces  set  apart  for  them  are  left  vacant  for 
other  insertions  as  preferred. 

The  coefficients  appearing  in  this  book  are,  then, 


I0  INTRODUCTION 

First.  Those  resulting  from  the  Uniied  States  Forestry 
Bureau  Experiments  noted  in  the  preceding  article  and  which, 
so  far  as  they  exist,  occupy  the  leading  spaces  directly  under 
the  titles. 

Second.  Those  conducted  at  the  Water  town  Arsenal  by  Mr. 
Sharpless  for  the  tenth  United  Stales  census  and  mentioned  in 
item  2,  pages  8  and  9.  These  appear  in  the  second  spaces, 
that  is,  in  lines  immediately  following  those  occupied  by  or  set 
apart  for  the  Forestry  figures  or  their  equivalents. 

All  coefficients  are  in  pounds  per  square  inch;  fractions  of 
pounds  in  weight  and  lower  figures  in  coefficients  have  been' 
omitted  as  superfluous. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  the  species  of  living 
trees,  because  forms  in  the  forest  differ  from  those  in  the  open, 
because  bark  varies  with  age,  and  because  fruit  and  leaves  of 
many  trees  are  lacking  in  the  winter.  It  is  easier  to  tell 
genus  than  species — that  a  tree  is  an  oak,  than  whether  it  is  a 
red  or  a  pin  oak.  Experience  is  required  in  this  connection. 

It  is  also  hard  to  identify  many  woods.  Colors  and  appear- 
ances vary  and  are  hard  to  describe.  Artisans  become  familiar 
with  a  few  kinds  of  woods,  but  they  are  usually  uncertain  with 
regard  to  others.  The  key  suggested  by  Professors  Fernow 
and  Roth  (Bulletin  10,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bureau,  pages  59-83), 
should  be  referred  to.  The  sections  prepared  by  Hough  are 
very  valuable.  The  Jesup  Collection  is  available  to  those 
living  near  New  York  City. 

Trees  are  divided  according  to  the  manner  in  which  new 
material  is  added  to  the  section.  This  is  sometimes  on  the 
outside  of  older  growth  and  next  to  the  bark  or  else  it  is  inside 
distributed  over  the  section.  Woods  are  correspondingly  dis- 
similar, and  the  two  general  divisions  into  which  trees  are  thus 
separated  are  known  as  Exogens  and  Endogens.* 

*  This  division  coincides  with  that  by  which  they  are  separated  into  Dicotyle- 
dons and  Monocotyledons.  It  applies  to  all  higher  organized  plants. 

1 

4 


PLATE  2.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
YEARLY  RINGS  OR  LAYERS. 


A  section  of  a  Ixmgleaf  Pine  Tree. 


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A  section  of  Oak  showing  "porous  "  structure  in  yearly  layers.     (Natural  size.) 


A  section  of  Hard  Pine  showing  "solid "  structure  in  layers.     (Natural  size.) 


EXOGENOUS  TREES. 

(Dicotyledons . ) 

Exogenous  trees  are  those  the  trunks  of  which  are  built 
up  by  rings  or  layers,  each  deposited  consecutively  upon  the 
outside  of  the  others.  A  section  exhibits  first  a  central  point 
or  canal  known  as  a  pith-cavity,  next  and  consecutively  the 
annual  layers,  and  finally  the  bark.  The 
woods  of  this  series  are  familiar  to  all.  The 
oaks,  pines,  and  practically  all  of  the  mer- 
chantable lumbers  are  among  them.  The 
forests  are  widely  distributed,  and  the  species 
are  so  numerous  as  to  present  an  almost 
infinite  range  of  possibilities.  FIG.  2. — SECTION  Box- 

These  trees  grow  in  two  ways,  "  length  ^S'^SSS' 
growth "  being  distinct  from  "  thickness  (ENLARGED.) 
growth."  Trees  thicken,  as  stated,  by  reason  of  new  material 
deposited  upon  the  cross-section  and  lengthen  by  a  sort  of 
telescopic  extension 'at  buds  or  extremities.  These  last,  once 
extended,  later  thicken,  so  as  in  turn  to  become  trunks  or 
boughs.  A  nail  driven  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  ground 
is  never  higher. 

Central  pith  cavities,  as  they  exist  in  exogenous  trees  are 
most  pronounced  in  younger  growth,  saplings  and  small 
branches.  They  are  later  absorbed  or  compressed  and  are 
seldom  directly  evident  in  the  sections  of  mature  trunks. 

The  young  wood  of  exogenous  trees  is  porous.  It  permits 
the  passage  of  sap  and  is  known  as  sapwood  (Alburnum).  As 
a  layer  is  enclosed  by  others  and  retreats  from  the  surface  of 


I2  EXOGENOUS   TREES. 

the  tree,  it  becomes  denser,  its  canals  are  filled  with  gums  or 
tannin,  color  changes,  and  the  result  is  heartwood  (Duramen). 
This  change  goes  forward  rapidly  in  some  trees,  such  as  locusts, 
so  that  their  sections  appear  to  be  almost  wholly  heartwood; 
other  species  require  longer  time,  and  sapwood  then  predomi- 
nates. 

Professor  von  Schrenk  believes  that  sapwood  changes  to 
heartwood  suddenly;  that  the  change  does  not  take  place  in 
one  ring  every  year,  but  that  it  frequently  skips  many  years,  so 
that  eight,  ten  or  even  more  rings  may  change  from  sapwood  to 
heartwood  in  one  year.  He  also  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
one  side  of  the  tree  may  change  before  the  other,  and  that  part 
of  a  ring  may  be  heartwood  while  the  rest  remains  sapwood.* 

Heartwood  gives  stability  to  the  tree,  but  is  not  needed  in 
its  physiological  processes.  It  is  tougher,  heavier,  stronger, 
and  more  valued  in  construction.  Sapwood  is  vitally  essen- 
tial to  the  life  of  the  tree,  but  is  lighter,  weaker,  less  durable, 
and  less  valued  in  construction.  Sapwood  is  pliable,  and  the 
sapwoods  of  several  trees  are  valued  for  this  reason. 

Wood-making  varies  as  it  takes  place  in  the  springtime 
and  in  the  summer.  Consequent  differences  in  the  densities 
of  the  deposits  serve  to  mark  the  limits  of  the  yearly  rings. 
Some  species,  as  the  oaks  and  hickories,  show  pores  through- 
out their  spring  woods  which  thus  contrast  with  denser  summer 
growths.  Others,  as  Southern  pines,  change  sharply,  and 
their  spring  and  summer  growths  appear  as  solid  bands.  In 
even  climates,  where  seasons  are  not  pronounced,  growth  is 
more  regular  and  layers  correspondingly  less  definite,  f 

The  cellular  structure  of  wood  is  principally  vertical,  a  fact 
that  explains  the  ease  with  which  wood  is  split  up  and  down. 
Beside  the  vertical,  there  are  horizontal  cells,  that  cross  the 
tree,  strengthen  and  bind  the  vertical  cells,  and  assist  in  the 
life-processes  of  the  tree.  These  horizontal  cells  form  what 
are  known  as  medullary  or  pith-rays  and  appear  as  simple 

*  U.  S.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  14,  p.  15. 
t  Circular  No.  16,  U.  S.  Forestry  Division. 


PLATE  3.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
MEDULLARY  OR  PITH  RAY. 


Actual  appearances  of  pith   ray, 
P 


Microscopic  enlargement  of  a  tangential  section  of  White  Oak 
showing  large  pith  ray,  //. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


lines  or  glistening  plates  according  to  the  way  in  which  the 
wood  is  cut.  Woods  differ  in  the  size  and  number  of  these  rays, 
which  are  by  no  means  always  visible  to  the  eye  (see  plate  3). 
Woods  are  easy  or  difficult  to  work  in  proportion  as  their 
fibres  are  arranged  in  a  simple  or  a  complicated  manner.  This 
is  shown  in  the  figures  on  plate  4.  A  knife  pressed  upon 
the  oak  must  crush  or  cut  into  the  fibres  themselves,  whereas 
with  the  pine  it  finds  some  natural  passage  between  the  cells. 
Wood  may  bs  cut  so  as  to  develop  cross-sections  (C,  Fig.  3), 
radial  sections  (R),  or  tangential  sections  (T).  The  respect- 
C 


FIG.  3. 

ive  markings  are  in  a  general  way  indicated  on  the  boards  in 

the  figure. 

Logs  are  sometimes  sawn  into  quarters  and  then  into  pieces 

crossing  and  exposing  the  yearly  rings.     (See  Fig.  4.)     These 

"quarter-sawn"  surfaces  are  structurally  stronger  and  better, 
but  are,  by  reason  of  waste  or  small  pieces,  more 
costly  than  others.  The  pith-rays  of  some  woods, 
such  as  oaks,  are  very  prominent  when  split  as  they 
are  in  "quarter-sawing,"  and  the  appearance  of 
such  woods  is  consequently  improved.*  "Vertical 
grained,"  ''straight  grained,"  "edge  grained,"  "rift 

grained"  and    " quartered  woods "   are   names   that  mean   the 


FIG.  4. 


*  Some  woods,  as  birdseye  maple,  are  well  developed  by  the  rotary  cut. 
A  revolving  log  is  advanced  against  a  tool  which  pares  a  broad  thin  ribbon  suit- 
able for  veneered  work. 


i4  EXOGENOUS   TREES. 

same  thing  whenever  the  names  are  applied  to  manufactured 

woods. 

Planks  and  boards,  with  the  exception  of  those  that  are 
intended  for  flooring,  decoration  or  special  purposes,  are  cut 
parallel  to  the  diameters  of  the  logs  and  when  thus  developed 
are  referred  to  as  "bastard,"  "slash"  and  "slice-cut"  boards. 

Boards  cut  from  logs  that  have  not  been  squared  show  parts 
of  the  outside  surfaces  of  the  logs.  The  uneven  appearance 
caused  in  this  way  is  known  as  "  wane."  These  uneven  and 
slanting  strips,  removed  when  the  boards  are  cut  to  standard 
widths,  are  known  as  "edging." 

Logs  are  often  squared  before  they  are  sliced,  and  the 
segments  of  bark  and  sapwood  that  are  then  separated  from 
the  logs  are  known  as  "slabs."  Edging  and  slabs  are  worked 
into  laths  or  are  burned  as  fuel. 

Vertical  separations  are  often  seen  in  trunks,  and  when 
caused  by  winds  or  frosts  they  are  known  as  "windshakes" 
and  "frostshakes."  Yearly  rings  or  layers  sometimes  separate 
from  one  another  when  the  term  "cupshakes"  is  employed 
and  the  pieces  in  which  the  defects  occur  are  known  as  "  rolled 
lumber"  because  it  is  inferred  that  the  separations  were  caused 
when  the  winds  rolled  the  trees  to  and  fro.  The  bends  that 
are  sometimes  seen  in  the  lengths  of  beams  or  ties  are  known  as 
"waves." 

The  short  but  sometimes  deep  cracks  that  appear  in  planks, 
and  that  are  due  to  drying  or  seasoning,  are  known  as  "  checks." 
Wood  is  sometimes  lifeless  and  brittle  as  the  result  of  age  or 
disease,  and  such  wood  is  called  "  brashwood." 

There  are  many  names  that  refer  to  practically  the  same 
cause  of  disintegration  in  wood.  "  Wet  rot,"  "dry  rot,"  disease,, 
decay,  bluing,  rust,  mildew,  canker,  soft  rot,  bot,  dote  and 
other  terms  are  thus  employed.  The  results  indicated  by  these 
names  are,  regardless  of  environment  and  of  peculiarities  of 
wreckage,  due  primarily  to  the  presence  of  bacteria  or  fungi. 
These  cannot  act  when  wood  is  saturated  with  water,  or  when 
it  is  entirely  dry,  or  when  it  has  been  subjected  to  certain 
chemicals. 


PLATE  4.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
(CROSS-SECTIONS,  ENLARGED.) 


Two  yearly  layers  of  White  Oak.  The  larger  pores  were  formed  in  spring,  the 
smaller  ones  in  summer.  The  small  circles  are  ends  of  fibres.  A  knife  pressed 
upon  this  surface  would  crush  or  cut  into  the  cells.  The  mass  would  not  split  or 
separate  evenly. 


Two  yearly  layers  of  White  Pine.  The  space  in  the  outer  or  darker  one  is  a 
resin-duct;  the  circles  are  ends  of  fibres  (tracheids);  pith  rays  are  noticeable.  A 
knife  pressed  upon  this  surface  would  find  easy  passage.  The  mass  would  separate 
easily. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD.  15 

Knots  are  the  result  of  branches.  Buds  connected  with 
"  pith  cavities "  appear  upon  the  bark  and  ultimately  develop 
into  branches.  There  are  corresponding  disturbances  between 
the  bark  and  pith  that  are  known  as  knots.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  such  disturbances  may  be  prevented  by  the  early 
removal  of  the  buds. 

Lumber  is  now  described  or  purchased  upon  the  basis  of 
some  one  of  the  several  series  of  rules  that  have  been  prepared 
with  reference  to  defects,  dimensions  and  the  general  inspection 
of  lumber.  Such  standards  have  been  adopted  or  published  by 
the  Hardwood  Manufacturers'  Association  of  the  United  States, 
the  Pacific  Coast  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association,  the 
Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association  and  others.* 

Exogenous  trees  are  divided  into  broad-leaved  trees  and 
needle-leaved  conifers.  The  broad,  flat  leaves  of  trees  such 
as  oaks  and  chestnuts  gave  rise  to  the  former  term,  while  the 
narrow  resinous  leaves  of  the  pine  and  hemlock  gave  rise  to 
the  latter.  The  woods  of  the  former  group  are  usually  referred 
to  as  hard  woods,  although  some  of  them  are  very  soft;  those 
of  the  latter  group  are  referred  to  as  soft  woods,  although  some 
of  them  are  very  hard.  Most,  but  not  all,  of  the  broadleai 
trees  are  deciduous,  that  is,  they  change  their  foliage  every 
year;  and  most,  but  not  all,  of  the  needleleaf  trees  are  ever- 
green, that  is,  the  foliage  is  persistent.  Needleleaf  trees  are 
also  known  as  conifers,  that  is,  cone-bearers. 

It  is  usual  to  associate  the  terms  broadleaf,  deciduous,  and 
hard  wood ;  and  likewise  the  terms  needleleaf,  conifer,  ever- 
green, and  soft  wood.  While  generally  correct,  this  is,  as 
seen,  not  always  so.  A  better  division  is  into  broadleaf  trees 
or  woods,  and  needleleaf  conifers. 

*  Copies  of  these  rules  may  be  obtained  from  the  secretaries  of  the  several 
associations.  The  principal  series  have  recently  been  published  under  one  cover 
as  "  Forest  Service  Bulletin  No.  71  " — Hodson.  This  Bulletin  is  called  "  Rules 
and  Specifications  for  the  Grading  of  Lumber,  Adopted  by  the  Various  Lumber 
Manufacturing  Associations  of  the  United  States."  Also  see  Trans.  American 
Soc.  for  Testing  Materials. 


BROADLEAF   WOODS. 

The  trees  affording  these  woods  are  found  in  natural 
forests  and  under  cultivation  in  nearly  every  portion  of  the 
globe.  The  histories  of  some  of  them  extend  back  to  very 
remote  periods.  Their  woods  were  the  principal  ones  in  con- 
struction in  many  districts.  The  oaks,  elms,  maples,  and 
many  other  so-called  hard  woods  are  of  this  group. 

Broadleaf  woods  are  characterized  by  complex  fibre  condi- 
tions, absence  of  resins,  and  greater  weights.*  They  are 
composed  of  several  kinds  of  cells  and  fibres,  arranged  without 
the  regularity  so  noticeable  in  the  conifers.  Cross-sections 
exhibit  numerous,  often  easily  visible  pores,  arranged  in  zones 
or  scattered  throughout  the  rings  (see  plate  2).  Pith-rays  are 
numerous  and  more  or  less  conspicuous,  save  in  softer  hard 
woods  such  as  poplar.  Woods  are  difficult  to  work  in  propor- 
tion as  they  are  complicated  in  structure.  The  numerous 
members  of  the  group  vary  from  one  anolher  and  present  an 
extensive  range  of  properties.  Although  there  are  exceptions, 
as  the  eucalyptus  and  tulip  trees,  individuals  of  this  class  are 
not  commonly  depended  upon  for  the  large  straight  pieces 
associated  with  the  pines,  spruces,  firs,  and  redwoods.  Many 
of  the  broadleaf  woods  are  used  in  "construction,"  but  the 
demand  for  this  purpose  is  much  less  than  that  met  by  the 
needleleaf  series.  Woods  for  cabinet  purposes,  implements, 
and  other  fine  needs  are  derived  from  the  broadleaf  group. 

The  leaves  of  broadleaf  trees  are  easily  distinguished  from 
the  resinous,  usually  evergreen  ones  of  the  conifers.  Most  of 
them  are  deciduous,  that  is,  shed  every  season,  although  some 
are  persistent,  that  is,  "evergreen."  "  Broadleaf,"  "  decidu- 
ous," and  "hardwood  "  trees  are  the  same. 

*  Neither  resin-ducts  nor  resin  exists  in  these  woods,  save  sometimes  in  buds 
and  leaves. 

16 


PLATE  5.     WHITE  OAK  (Qturcus  alb 


OAK. 

(Quercus.) 

The  oaks  are  found  on  all  of  the  continents  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  as  well  as  at  high  altitudes  just  south  of  the 
equator.  Their  woods  stand  pre-eminent  among  those  of  the 
broadleaf  series  and  have  been  highly  prized  from  early 
periods.  Formerly  relied  upon  for  all  purposes  of  house  and 
naval  architecture,  they  did  not  give  way  to  the  so-called 
"soft  woods  "  for  houses,  and  to  iron  for  vessels,  until  com- 
paratively recent  periods.  They  were  supplanted  for  the 
former  purposes  upon  the  opening  of  the  soft-wood  forests  of 
North  America  and  of  the  Baltic,  and  for  vessels  subsequent 
to  the  conclusions  of  the  American  Civil  War. 

The  historical  importance  of  oak  is  founded  upon  the  repu- 
tation of  the  English  Oak  as  derived  from  two  trees,  Quercus 
rshur  var.   pedunculata    and    Quercus  robur  var.    sessiliflora, 
V  "•  as  sub-species  of  Quercus  robur.*    It  is  said  that 
^sc  nee    formed    large    forests    over    Northern    and 

Central  h,urope.  Live-oak  has  always  been  highly  esteemed, 
but  is  now  very  scarce.  It  is  one  of  the  hardest,  heaviest, 
and  most  durable  of  constructive  woods  and  was  once  largely 
employed  in  ship-building.  The  wood  of  the  White  Oak 
(Quercus  affia)  is  at  present  preferred  for  most  purposes  for 
which  oak  is  now  employed,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  the  American  hard  woods. 

/  Oak  is  tough,  durable,  easily  obtained,  liable  to  warp  and 
check  in  seasoning,  often  hard  to  nail  without  splitting,  sus- 
ceptible of  high  polish,  and  not  greatly  liable  to  attack  by 
insects.  It  contains  gallic  acid,  causing  peculiar  taste  and  odor 
and  attacking  iron,  the  solutions  staining  the  wood.  Experi- 
ments f  ^indicate  that  iron  fastenings  are  shortly  protected  by 
an  insoluble  scale  of  resulting  salt,  and  that  the  wood,  although 

*  Thought  by  some  botanists  to  be  distinct  species,  namely,  Quercus  pedun- 
culata and  Quercus  sessiliflora. 

f  Havemeyer  Chemical  Laboratory,  N.  Y.  University.    See  foot-note,  p.  32. 

17 


iS 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


darkened,  remains  practically  uninjured.  The  later  oaken 
vessels  were  iron-fastened,*  and  cabinet-makers  now  employ 
that  metal  in  joining  oak.  The  barks  of  all  species  are  also 
so  charged  with  acid  as  to  be  used  in  the  tanning  of  leather. 
The  several  kinds  of  oak  are  commercially  divisible  into 
three  general  groups,  white  oak,  red  or  black  oak,  and  live 
oak.f  The  principal  species  affording  woods  under  each  head 
are  as  follows: 


White  Oak.  Red  or  Black  Oak. 

White  Oak  (O.  alba).  Red  Oak  (Q.  rubra). 

Cow  Oak  (Q.  michauxii).  Pin  Oak  (Q.  palustris). 

Chestnut  Oak  (Q.  prinus).  Spanish  Oak  (O.  digitata). 

Post  Oak  (Q.  minor).  Yellow     or     Black    Oak 
Bur  Oak  (Q.  macrocarpai.        (Q.  velutina). 
Pacific  Post  Oak  (Q.   gar- 
ryanna). 


Live  Oak. 

Live  Oak  (Q.  virginiana). 
California    Live   Oak    (Q. 

agrifolia). 
Live  Oak  (Q.  chrysolepis). 


Oak  trees  are  char- 
acterized by  oblong, 
thin-shelled  kernels, 
protruding  from  hard 
scaly  cups  and  called 
acorns.  The  foliage  is 


r 


> 


WHITE  OAK  RED  OAK 

(Quercus  alba).  (Qncrcus  rubra.) 

sometimes  deciduous  and  sometimes 
evergreen.  Most  oaks  require  many 
years  to  reach  maturity,  but  are  then 
long-lived.  Fifty  of  the  nearly  three 
hundred  known  species  of  oak  are  na- 
tives of  the  United  States  and  Canada  ; 
all  but  four  become  trees  under  favorable  LlVK  °AK  ^Ut'rcl" v"'f  mtina) 
conditions.)  Quercus  is  from  two  Celtic  words,  qucr,  signifying 
fine,  and  duex,  a  tree. 

*  Communication.     Mr.  Chas.  H.  Cramp,  President  Cramp  Ship-building  Co 
Philadelphia. 

f  This  division  is  also  a  botanical  one  based  not  only  on  differences  in  anatom- 
ical structure  of  the  wood  itself,  but  on  the  time  required  by  fruit  in  attaining 
maturity,  and  on  persistence  of  foliage  (evergreen  or  deciduous),  etc. 


EXOGENOUS    SERIES-BROADLEAF   WOODS.  19 

White  Oak.  Quercus  alba  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

White  Oak  (general).  Stave  Oak  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Widespread,  north-central  and  eastern  United  States. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  Three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter,  fine  shape  and  appearance.  Grayish-white  bark. 
Comparatively  sweet  ovoid  oblong  acorns  in  rough  shallow 
cups.  Rounded  lobes  or  projections  to  leaves. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown   with   sapwood   lighter.     Annual  layers  well 

marked. 
Medullary  rays  broad  and  prominent. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  strong,  heavy,  hard,  liable  to  check  unless  seasoned 
with  care.  Durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Receives  a 
high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  construction,  cooperage,  cabinet-making,  rail- 
way ties,  fuel,  etc.  Bark  is  rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
50  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
46. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,090,000  (average  of  218  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,380,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13, 100  (average  of  218  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

A  tree  of  the  first  economic  importance.  The  most  widely 
employed  of  all  American  oaks.  Name  refers  to  appearance 
of  baric.  The  supply  diminishing  because  of  value  of  timber, 
also  the  sweetness  of  nuts  causes  them  to  be  eaten  by  animals. 
Oaks  warp  and  check  easily  because  of  their  complicated  fiber 
arrangements.  Some  cell-structures  dry  faster  than  others. 
Oaks  stand  well  after  having  once  been  seasoned;  there  is 
then  little  further  distortion. 

*  See  page  8. 


20  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cow  Oak.  Quercus  michauxii  Nult. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Cow  Oak  (local  and  common         Swamp  White  Oak  (Del., 

name).  Ala.). 

Basket  Oak  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,         Swamp  Chestnut  Oak  (Fla.). 
'    Tex.,  Ark.). 

Locality. 

Southeastern  United  States,  Delaware  and  Florida,  westward 
along  Gulf  to  Texas.  Also  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  to 
Gulf.  Best  on  rich  bottoms  in  Arkansas  and  Louisiana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter,  rough,  light-gray  bark  with  loose  scaly  ridges. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  light  buff  sapwood,,  conspicuous 
medullary  rays,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  very  strong,  tough,  durable,  easily  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Construction,  agricultural  implements,  wheel  stock. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

50. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,610,000  (average  of  256  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,370,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,500  (average  of  256  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1 5, 800. 

Remarks. 

The  principal  white  oak  of  Southern  States;  edible  acorns 
devoured  by  cattle,  whence  its  name. 


See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  21 

Chestnut  Oak.  Quercus  prinus  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Chestnut  Oak  (local  and  com-         Tanbark  Oak  (N.  C.). 

mon  name).  Swamp  Chestnut  Oak  (N.  C  ) 

Rock  Oak  (N.  Y.,  Del.,  Pa.).         Mountain  Oak  (Ala  ) 
Rock    Chestnut  Oak   (Mass., 
R.  L,  Pa.,  Del.,  Ala.). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Georgia,  westward  intermittently  to  Kentucky  and 
Alabama.  Best  development  in  southern  Alleghany  Mountain 
region. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  chestnut. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  medullary 
rays  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  tough,  hard,  strong,  and  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  railway  ties.     Bark  rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,780,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,600. 

Remarks. 

Prinus  is  a  Greek  name  applied  to  a  species  of  oak. 


22  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Quercus  minor  Sargent, 
Post  Oak.  -j  ^werCMJ  obtusiloba  Michx. 


Nomenclature.     (Sud  worth.) 

Post  Oak  (local  and  common  Overcup  Oak  (Fla.). 

name).  White  Oak  (Ky.,  Ind.). 

Iron  Oak  (Del.,  Miss.,  Neb.).  Box  Oak  (Md.). 

Box  White  Oak  (R.  I.).  Brash  Oak  (Md.). 
Chene  etoile  (Quebec). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains  —  Massachusetts  to  northern  Florida, 
westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and  Gulf  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Low  shrub  in  Florida.  Blunt  lobes  or  projections  to  leaves. 
Leaves  clustered  at  ends  of  branches.  Fine  tree  with  rounded 
top. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  or  dark  brown  with  lighter  sapwood.  Close- 
grained,  annual  rings  well  marked.  Numerous  and  con- 
spicuous medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  drying.  Durable  in  con- 
tact with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used,  particularly  in  Southwest,  for  fencing,  railway  ties, 
and  fuel  ;  also  for  cooperage,  construction,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  'Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

50  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

52- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,030,000  (average  of  49  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,180,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300  (average  of  49  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
12,900. 

Remarks. 

Most  common  and  widely  distributed  oak  in  Gulf  States  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  Obtusiloba,  the  Latin  for  blunt-Iobed, 
refers  to  the  shapes  of  the  leaves.  Wood  seldom  commercially 
distinguished  from  white  oak. 

*  See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  23 

Bur  Oak.  Quercus  macrocarpa  Michx. 

Nomenclature .      (Sudworth. ) 

Bur  Oak  (local  and  common  Mossycup    Oak    (Mass.,    Pa., 

name).  Del.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark., 

Overcup  Oak  (R.  I.,  Del.,  Pa.,  111.,  Iowa,  Neb.,  Kan.). 

Miss.,  La.,  111.,  Minn.).  Scrub  Oak  (Neb.,  Minn.). 

Mossycup  White  Oak  (Minn. ).  Overcup  White  Oak  (Vt. ). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick,  New  England,  westward  intermittently  to 
Montana  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  height,  five  to  seven 
feet  in  diameter.  Deep  opposite  depressions  to  leaves. 
Mossy,  fringed  border  at  top  of  acorn-cup.  Corky  wings  on 
young  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  broad 
conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  very  durable  in  contact  with 
ground. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Similar  to  those  of  Quercus  alba. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46.00. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,320,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,900. 

Remarks. 

Extends  farthest  west  and  northwest  of  any  other  Eastern  oak. 
Especially  recommended  for  prairie  planting. 


24  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Oak.  Quercus  garryana  Douglas. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Oak  (Gal.,  Oreg.).         Oregon  White  Oak  (Cal.). 
Pacific  Post  Oak  (Oreg.).          California  Post  Oak. 
Western  White  Oak  (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast,  British  Columbia  into  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  ninety  feet  high,  one  and  one  half  to  two  and  one  half 
feet  in  diameter.  A  small  shrub  at  high  elevations. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow.  Sapwood  lighter,  often 
nearly  white.  Compact  structure.  Distinctly  marked  annual 
rings.  Medullary  rays  often  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  strong,  hard,  tough. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  carriages,  furniture,  indoor  decoration,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,150,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,400. 
Remarks. 

Locally  important.  The  best  substitute  for  Eastern  White  Oak 
produced  on  Pacific  coast. 


^ 


uusnn  Cy-  Swa,mp'  White   °r  California  White    Oak 

he  ll  ,  }'    a  naUve  °f  CCntral  westcm  California,  is  one  of 

the  largest  and  most  symmetrical  of  all  oaks.     It  adds  to    amUr- 
where   lt   gro  dms  a(W   tQ   ^  ^        £  <£*£»  ^s  t^ 

brittle  wood  ls  seldom  used  in  construction,  bun's  an  important  Ioo5 


EXOGENOUS   SERIES— BROADLEAF    WOODS.  25 

Red  Oak.  Quercus  rubra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Oak  (local  and  common  name). 

Black  Oak  (Vt.,  Conn.,   N.  Y.,  Wis.,   la.,  Neb.,  So.   Dak. 

Ont.). 
Spanish  Oak  (Pa.,  N.  C). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains,  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia,  westward 
intermittently  to  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  best  in  Massachusetts. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Three  to  six  feet  and 
over  in  diameter,  brownish-gray  bark  smooth  on  branches. 
Leaves  have  sharp-pointed  lobes,  very  large  acorns  in  flat 
shallow  cups.  A  fine  complete  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse-grained, 
well-marked  annual  rings,  medullary  rays  few  but  broad. 

Structural  Qualities  of  wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  inclined  to  check  in  drying,  acid,  inferior 
to  white  oak. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Works  of  secondary  importance,  clapboards,  cooperage,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
45  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,970,000  (average  of  57  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400  (average  of  57  tests  by  U.  S.   Forestry  Div.).* 
14,000. 

Remarks. 

Grows  more  rapidly  than  other  oaks.      Bark  used  in  tanning. 


*  See  page  8. 


26  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Pin  Oak.  Quercus  palustris  Muenchh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pin  Oak  (local  and  common  Water  Oak  (R.  I.,  111.). 

name).  Swamp    Oak    (Pa.,    Ohio, 

Swamp   Spanish  Oak    (Ark.,  Kans.). 

Kan.).  Water  Spanish  Oak  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota  to  Kansas,  eastward  intermittently  to  Massachusetts 
and  Virginia. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
Full-rounded  or  pyramidal  top,  smooth  thin  bark,  numerous 
small  pin-like  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  variegated  light  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white, 
coarse-grained,  medullary  rays  numerous  and  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shingles,  clapboards,  construction,  interior  finish,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,500,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,400. 
Remarks. 

Palustris,  the  Latin  for  swampy,  refers  to  favorite  location  of 
tree.  The  numerous  slender  secondary  branches  suggesting 
pins  cause  tree  to  be  easily  recognized,  particularly  in  winter. 


EXOGENOUS    SERIES—  BROADLEAF    WOODS.  27 


Spanish  Oak.        \  Q"ercus 

(  Quercus  falcata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Spanish  Oak  (local  and  common  name). 

Red  Oak  (N.  C.,  Va.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Mis.,  La.,  Ind.). 

Spanish  Oak  (La.). 

Locality. 

New  Jersey  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Illinois  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  and  one  half  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.      Variable  foliage.      Globular  to  oblong  acorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  red,   sapwood    lighter,  coarse-grained,  annual 
layers  strongly  marked,  medullary  rays  few  but  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  durable,  checks  badly  in  drying. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Somewhat  used    for    cooperage,   construction,   etc.      Bark  very 
rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,900,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,900. 

Remarks. 

Dry  barren  soils.     Grows  rapidly., 


28  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

r\  i       (  Onerous  veluiina  Lam. 
Black  Oak,  Yellow  Oak.   j  . 


Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Black  Oak,  Yellow  Oak  (local  Tanbark  Oak  (111.). 

and  common  names).  Spotted  Oak  (Mo.). 

Yellow  Bark,  Yellow-bark  Oak  Quercitron  Oak  (Del.,  S.  C., 

(R.  I.,  Minn.).  La.,  Kans.,  Minn.). 

Dyer's  Oak  (Tex.). 

Locality. 

East  of  longitude  96  degrees,  Maine  and  Florida,  westward 
intermittently  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  Best  in  North 
Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  height,  three  to  five 
feet  in  diameter.  Dark  gray  to  black  bark,  yellow  inner 
bark.  Acorns  have  bitter  yellow  kernels.  Foliage  turns  hand- 
somely in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse  grain, 
annual  layers  strongly  marked,  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  liable  to  check  in  drying,  not  tough. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cooperage,  construction,  furniture,  and  decoration. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
45  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,74Q,oco  (average  of  40  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,470,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,800  (average  of  40  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div  ).* 

14,800. 

Remarks. 

Yellow  inner  bark  affords  yellow  dye. 


*  See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  29 

St      T  •   a,  f\  ^  j  Quercus  virginiana  Mill. 

\  Quercus  virens  Ait. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Live  Oak  (Va.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,          Chene  Vert  (La.). 
Ga.,     Fla.,     Miss.,     Ala., 
Tex.,  La.,  Calif.). 

Locality. 

Southern  States — coast  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  westward  to 
Texas  and  Lower  California,  southern  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  Cuba.  Best  in  south  Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  sixty  feet  high,  diameter  three  to  six  feet.  General 
resemblance  to  apple-tree.  Evergreen  foliage. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow,  sapwood  nearly  white, 
close-grained,  compact  structure,  pronounced  medullary  ray, 
annual  layers  often  hardly  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  strong,  tough,  hard,  difficult  to  work,  splits  easily. 
Receives  high  polish,  very  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Ship-building. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

59- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,600,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Trunk  and  branches  furnish  small  straight  pieces,  but  principally 
knees,  crooked  or  compass  timbers.  Virens  refers  to  ever- 
green foliage.  Splits  so  easily  that  it  is  better  fastened  with 
bolts  or  trenails  than  spikes.  Now  scarce,  grows  rapidly. 


30  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

California  Live  Oak.        Quercus  agrifolia  Nee. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Coast  Live  Oak  (Cal.).  Encena  (Cal.). 

California  Live  Oak  (Cal.).  Evergreen  Oak  (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy-five  and  occasionally  more  feet  in  height, 
three  to  six  feet  in  diameter.  Evergreen  foliage,  leaves 
spiked  like  those  of  holly.  Shape  resembles  that  of  apple  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  creamy  white,  but  darkens  on  exposure.  Compact 
structure,  annual  layers  hardly  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  but  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,200. 
Remarks. 

Agrifolia  is  from  the  Latin  acer,  sharp,  znti/olium,  leaf,  allud 
ing   to   the   spinous   toothed    leaves. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  31 

Live  Oak.  Quercus  chrysokpis  Liebm. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Live  Oak  (Cal.,  Oreg.).  Canyon  Oak,  Iron  Oak,  Maul 

Canyon  Live  Oak,  Black  Live  Oak,  Valparaiso  Oak  (Cal.). 

Oak,       Golden-cup        Oak 
(Cal.). 
Locality. 

West  of  Rocky  Mountains,  canyons,  and  high  elevations.    " 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 
Often  low  shrub.  Impressive  appearance.  Evergreen  foliage. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  small  pores  in  wide 
bands  parallel  to  conspicuous  medullary  rays.  Close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  tough,  difficult  to  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Implements,  wagons,  tool-handles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

52. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,700,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

18,000. 

Remarks. 

Said  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  the  California  oaks.  Grows  at 
elevations  of  2000  to  5000  feet.  Highland  Oak  (Quercus  wis- 
lizeni)  is  an  evergreen  and  a  Pacific  Coast  variety. 


32  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

English  Oak.         Quercus  robur  var.  pedunculala. 

Nomenclature. 

English  Oak.  British  Oak.  Common  Oan. 

Locality. 

Widespread  throughout  northern  and  central  Europe. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  five  feet  in 
diameter.  Crooked  branches,  stalkless  leaves,  long-stalked 
acorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  darker  spots  frequent,  sapwood 
lighter.  Compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  tough,  strong,  durable,  difficult  to  work,  liable  to  warp 
in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  beams,  cabinet-work,  formerly  carpentry. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
51  (Laslett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,170,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
10,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The  English,  Chestnut,  Durmast,  or  Red  Oak,  Q.  robur  var. 
sessiliflora,  distinguished  by  long  leaf  stalks  and  short  acorn 
stalks,  affords  practically  similar  but  lower-rated  wood.  The  two 
varieties  supply  the  British  Oak  of  commerce.  Dantzic,  Rigi, 
and  some  other  European  oaks  take  names  from  port  of  ship- 
ment. Rubrus  is  red,  but  robur  is  a  noun  meaning  strength ; 
the  adjective  robustus  means  "  oaken  "  or  vigorous.  Durmast 
Oak,  which  is  the  Quercus  pubescens  of  some  botanists,  is  less 
common  than  Quercus  var.  pedunculata.  The  two  woods  are 
often  confused.  Laslett  states  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
one  wood  from  the  other  without  tracing  logs  back  to  original 
sources.  Early  writers  advised  against  the  use  of  iron  fasten- 
ings with  oak,  but  woods  are  now  better  seasoned,  and,  as 
stated  (see  page  17),  later  practise  does  not  support  this  view. 
at  least  as  applied  to  American  woods.* 

*  To  determine  the  effect  of  gallic  acid  on  iron :  Five  grams  of  clean  iron  wire 
were  immersed  in  a  five  per  cent,  solution  of  gallic  acid.  In  nine  days  the  weight 
was  4,720  grams  and  the  solution  intensely  black.  Thirteen  days  later  the  same 
specimen  weighed  4-7453-  This  indicated  the  formation  of  a  crust  weighing  more 
than  the  original  iron  and  probably  protecting  it  to  some  extent 


PLATE  U.     WHITE  ASH  (traxinus  americand). 


N  ASH. 

(Fraxinus.) 

Ash  is  widely  distributed  over  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  occurs  in  the  tropics,  on  the  island 
of  Cuba.  The  tree  has  occupied  a  position  second  only  to 
that  of  oak.  Our  Teutonic  forefathers  relied  upon  its  wood  for 
boats  and  weapons.  Their  ancient 
faith  connects  it  with  the  creation  of 
the  original  man.  It  is  often  asso- 
ciated with  oak  in  country  proverbs.* 
Europeans  regard  the  trees  for  or- 
namental purposes,  but  Americans 
value  them  for  wood. 

Ash  and  oak  woods  resemble  one 
another  in  that  there  are  bands  of 
open  pores  in  both  woods,  but  the 
pith-rays  of  the  ash  are  thinner  and 
scarcely  discernible .  Ash  is  coarser. 

WHITE  ASH  (Fraxinus 

less  attractive,  easier  to  work,  tough,  americana). 

elastic,  and  somewhat  lighter  than  oak.  It  seasons  well,  but 
does  not  last  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  Lumbermen  sep- 
arate the  woods  into  white  and  black  ash,  the  former  including 
the  lighter-colored  and  more  desirable  pieces.  This  commer- 
cial division  is  also  a  botanical  one  in  the  North,  where  the 
only  species  of  any  note  are  the  white  ash  and  black  ash 
(F.  americana  and  F.  nigra].  The  Southern  green  ash  (F. 
lanceolata)  is  usually  classed  as  white  ash.  The  trees  that  grow 
up  after  the  cutting  of  the  virgin  forest  afford  tougher,  more 
pliable,  but  not  necessarily  stronger  pieces,  known  as  ' '  second- 
growth  ' '  ash.  Although  not  relied  upon  for  out-of-door  con- 
struction, ash  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  cheaper 
cabinet  woods  and  is  used  in  stairs,  furniture,  and  similar  works. 

*  A  tradition,  old  in  Pliny's  time,  is  that  serpents  avoid  ash  trees;  another  is 
that  ash  is  particularly  liable  to  be  struck  by  lightning. 

33 


34  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

One  half  of  the  thirty  known  species  of  the  genus  Fraxinus 
inhabit  North  America. 

The  name  ash  is  also  applied  to  several  species  of  the  genus  Pyrus  or  Sorbus, 
to  which  the  apple,  pear,  quince,  and  some  other  trees  belong, 
other  "fruitwoods"  are  in  different  genera. 

Most  trees  that  yield  common  edible  fruits  are  valued  for  them  and  such  trees 
are  not  normally  cut  down  to  any  extent  for  wood. 

The  Sweet  or  American  Crab  Apple  tree  (Pyrus  coronana)  is  native,  in 
mittently,  from  Massachusetts  and  Nebraska,  southward  into  Georgia  and  Texas. 
It  rarely  grows  over  twenty-five  feet  in  height  and  one  foot  in  diameter,  and  is 
often  a  low  shrub.  The  hard,  close-grained  wood  is  occasionally  used  in  turnery. 
The  trees  are  particularly  prized  in  landscape  effects,  because  of  their  sweet 
scented  flowers.  The  Oregon  Crab  Apple  (Pyrus  rivularis)  grows  naturally  from 
California  to  Alaska  and  is  sometimes  forty  feet  in  height.  The-  fine,  hard,  heavy, 
close-grained  wood  is  used  for  tool  handles,  mallets  and  similar  small,  turned 
objects.  The  Narrowleaf  Crab  Apple  (Pyrus  angustifolia)  affords  a  similar  wood, 

The  Apple  (Pyrus  malus)  is  a  small  tree,  rarely  much  over  thirty  feet  in  height. 
It  origated  in  Europe,  but  is  now  common  in  all  temperate  climates.  The  hard, 
heavy,  close-grained  wood  is  brittle  and  apt  to  warp  during  seasoning.  It  is 
preeminently  an  implement  wood  and  is  sometimes  turned  into  tool  handles  and 
other  small  objects.  Many  varieties  have  been  perfected  by  cultivation,  as  see 
"The  Apples  of  New  York,"  Beach,  Booth  &  Taylor,  published  by  N  Y.  State 
Dept.  Agriculture,  etc.  

The  Pear  (Pyrus  communis)  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  now  cul- 
tivated in  most  temperate  climates.  The  wood  is  rather  hard  and  heavy,  and  so 
firm,  tough,  fine  and  close-grained  that  it  has  been  used  in  printing.  It  was  once 
valued  for  drawing-squares  and  triangles,  but  has  been  largely  replaced  for  these 
purposes  by  hard  rubber  and  celluloid.  Pearwood  is  turned.  It  is  used  for 
furniture  and  is  sometimes  ebonized  for  small  objects.  Many  varieties  have  been 
obtained  by  cultivation.  ^ ^— ^_ 

The  Orange  (several  species  of  Citrus  as  Citrus  aurantium  and  Citrus  tri- 
foliata)  was  introduced  into  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  Louisiana  and  California 
from  Asia  or  the  Mediterranean  shores.  It  is  a  small  tree  with  oily,  evergreen 
foliage,  fragrant  flowers  and  edible  fruit.  Fruit,  oils  and  essences  are  highly 
prized.  Trees  are  seldom  cut.  The  strong,  hard,  heavy,  very  close-grained, 
lemon  colored  wood  is  made  into  souvenirs  or  other  small  objects.  A  piece  of 
American  orange  wood  ten  inches  wide  was  exhibited  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition. 
Many  varieties  of  orange  have  been  obtained  by  cultivation. 


The  Olive  (Olea  europaea)  was  introduced  from  Asia  or  the  Mediterranean 
countries  into  Southern  California  by  the  early  Spanish  Missions.  The  irregular 
trees,  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height,  have  evergreen  foliage  and  oily  fruit.  The 
fruit  is  so  valuable  that  the  trees  are  seldom  cut.  The  mottled,  rich  orange-brown 
heartwood  of  foreign  trees,  made  into  souvenirs,  inlaid  work  and  other  small 
objects,  is  hard,  heavy,  very  close-grained  and  may  be  highly  j>olished.  but  is  not 
prized  unless  taken  from  older  trees.  American  olive  wood  is  not  particularly 
attractive,  because  the  heartwood  has  not  matured  sufficiently.  Many  varieties 
of  olive  have  been  obtained  by  cultivation. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  35 

White  Ash.  Fraxinus  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

White  Ash  (local  and  common         Cane  Ash  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.). 

name).  American  Ash  (la.). 

Ash    (Ark.,    la.,    Wis.,    111., 
Mo.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 

and  Texas.      Greatest  development  in  the  Ohio  River  basin. 
Features  of  Tree. 

.  Forty-five  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.     Three 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.     Usually  smooth  leaves,  have  whitish 
under   surfaces.       Gray    bark    in    prominent    vertical    ridges. 
Long-winged  seed. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  usually  mottled;  sapwood  much 
lighter  or  nearly  white.  Coarse-grained,  compact  structure. 
Layers  clearly  marked  by  large  open  ducts.  Medullary  rays 
obscure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  elastic,  becoming  brittle  with  age,  not 
durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Agricultural  implements,  carriages,  handles,  oars,  interior  and 
cheap  cabinet-work. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,640,000  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,440,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
.    10,800  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,200. 

Remarks. 

Economically  valuable.  Rapid  growers,  preferring  low,  rather 
moist  soil.  Not  apt  to  form  in  forests,  but  found  often  in  clumps 
mingled  with  other  varieties.  Large  trees  sometimes  have  large 
heart-cracks. 

*  See  page  8. 

White  ash  is  subject  to  a  fungus  disease  by  which  its  wood  is  reduced  to  a 
soft,  pulpy,  yellowish  mass,  unfit  for  lumber.  The  disease  which  known  as  white 
rot  progresses  until  the  tree  becomes  so  weak  that  it  is  blown  over  by  the  winds. 
(See  windfalls,  page  155.)  It  does  not  attack  dead  or  seasoned  woods.  Von 
Schrenk.  U.  S.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  32. 


36  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

j  Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marsh. 
Red  Ash.  -j  praxinus  pubescens  Lam. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Red  Ash  (local  and  common  Brown  Ash  (Mo.). 

name).  Black  Ash  (N.  J.). 

River  Ash  (R.  I.,  Ont.).  Ash  (Nebr.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Alabama.  Best  developed  in  North  Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

A  small  tree,  rarely  over  forty-five  feet  high,  and  about  one  foot 
in  diameter.     Downy-covered  young  twigs  and  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  sapwood  light  brown  streaked  with 
yellow,  coarse-grained  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Agricultural  implements,  handles,  boats,  oars,  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,154,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300. 
Remarks. 

Grows  on  borders  of  streams  and  swamps  in  low  ground.  Often 
confused  with  and  substituted  for  the  more  valuable  white  ash. 
Pubescens  is  in  allusion  to  the  downy  covering  of  the  new 
twigs  (those  of  white  ash  usually  smooth).  Pennsylvanica 
refers  to  locality  in  which  it  is  well  developed. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAP  WOODS.  37 

Blue  Ash.  Fraxinus  quadrangulata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Blue  Ash  (Mich.,  111.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ala.). 

Locality. 

Central  States,  Mississippi  Valley,  Michigan,  and  southward, 
cultivated  in  Pennsylvania.  Best  in  low  Wabash  Valley. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher,  one  to 
two  feet  in  diameter.  Slender.  Blue  properties  in  inner 
bark,  smooth  square  twigs. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  streaked  with  brown,  sapwood  lighter, 
close-grained,  compact  structure  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  brittle,  not  strong,  most  durable  of  ash  woods. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  in  floorings,  carriage-building,  pitchfork-  and 
other  tool-handles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

44- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,100,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,500. 

Remarks. 

Has  no  superior  among  ash  woods.  Blue  Ash  pitchfork -handles 
are  very  fine.  Prefers  limestone  formations.  Inner  bark 
colors  water  blue,  whence  name. 


38  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

j  Fraxmus  nigra  Marsh. 
Black  Ash.  j  ]rraxjnus  sambucifolia  Lam. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Ash  (local  and  common  Swamp  Ash  ( Vt. ,  R.  I. ,  N.  Y. ). 

name).  Brown  Ash  (N.  H.,  Tenn.). 

Water  Ash   (W.    Va.,  Tenn.,  Hoop  Ash  (Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Del., 

Ind.).  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.). 

Locality. 

Northern  and  Northeastern  States — Newfoundland  to  Virginia, 
westward  intermittently  to  Manitoba  and  Arkansas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  one  and  one-half  feet  in 
diameter.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  Elder.  A  thin  tree. 
Excrescences  or  knobs  frequent  on  trunk.  Dark,  almost 
black,  winter  buds. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown,  sapwood  light  brown,  often  nearly 
white,  coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  medullary  rays 
numerous  and  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Separates  easily  in  layers,  rather  soft  and  heavy,  tough,  elastic, 
not  strong  or  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

\/          Largely  used  for  interior  finish,  fencing,  barrel-hoops,  cabinet- 
making,  splint  baskets,  chair-bottoms. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

39- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,230,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400. 
Remarks. 

Excrescences  known  as  burls;  their  distorted  grain  causes  them 
to  be  prized  for  veneers.  The  most  northerly  of  ash-trees; 
one  of  the  most  slender  of  trees. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  39 

rv^  n   AcVi  j  Fraxinus  lanceolaia  Borkh. 

\  Fraxinus  viridis  Michx.  f. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Green  Ash  (local  and  common         Ash  (Ark.  Iowa). 

name).  Swamp  Ash  (Fla.,  Ala., Tex.). 

Blue  Ash  (Ark.,  Iowa).  Water  Ash  (Iowa). 

White  Ash  (Kans.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky    Mountains.     Vermont   and   northern   Florida 
intermittently  to  Utah  and  Arizona. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.    Bright 
green  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  smooth  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,   sapwood    lighter,   rather  coarse-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses. 

Similar  to  those  of  White  Ash. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,050,000  (average  of  10  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,280,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1 1, 600  (average  of  10  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,700. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes  considered  a  variety  of  Red  Ash. 


*  See  page  8. 


40  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Oregon  Ash.  Fraxinus  oregona  Kutt. 

Nomenclature. 

Oregon  Ash  (Calif.,  Wash.,  Oregon). 

L°Padfic    coast,    Washington    to   California.     Best  developed  in 
bottom  lands,  southwestern  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  occasionally  seventy-five  feet   in    height,   one   to  o: 
and   one-half  feet  in  diameter.       Dark    grayish-brown,   bark 
exfoliates  in  thin  scales. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   brown,  sapwood    lighter,   coarse-grained,   c 
structure,  numerous  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Rather  light,  hard,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Manufacture  of  furniture,  carriage-frames,  cooperage,  and  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9400. 

Remarks. 

One   of  the    valuable   deciduous   trees   of   the    Pacific   coast 
Thrives  only  on  moist  soils  and  in  moist  climates. 


"  Mountain  Ash  "  is  either  Pyrus  americana  or   Pyrus  sambucifolia.     Both 
species,  with  their  bright  red  berries,  are  to  be  classed  as  shrubs  rather  than  trees; 
their  light,  soft,  weak,  close-grained  woods  having  no  economic  importance,  save 
perhaps  for  fuel     The  series  is  partially  as  follows:   also  see  page  34. 
Pyrus  malus  (Common  apple).  Pyrus  americana  (Mountain  ash). 

Pyrus  coronaria  (American  crab-apple).    Pyrus  sambucifolia  (Mountain  ash). 
Pyrus  communis  (Common  pear).  Pyrus  ancuparia  (Rowan  tree,  European 

Pyrus  vulgaris  (Common  quince).  Mountain  ash). 

The  Toothache  Trees,  Xanthoxylum  americana  and  Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis 
(Linn.),  are  known  as  ash  and  prickly  ash.  The  gopher  wood,  Cladrastis  tinctoria, 
is  yellow  ash.  These  woods  are  not  important. 


PLATE  7.     ELM  (Uinttts  cniencana). 


ELM. 

(Ulmus.} 


The  different  species  of  elm  are  distributed  over  the  cold 
and  temperate  portions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  save 
western  United  States  and  Canada.  A  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion is  attained  in  eastern  North  America,  where  trees  are 
greatly  prized  for  their  form  and  appearance. 

The  foliage  of  the  elm  is  concentrated  at  the  top,  and  the 
absence  of  lower  branches  causes  it  to  be  a  good  tree  to  plant 
near  houses  or  along  streets. 
(  Much  of  the  wood  is  tough,  fibrous, 
durable,  strong,  hard,  heavy,  and, 
because  it  is  so  often  cross- 
grained,  difficult  to  split  and  work. 
The  large  pores  of  the  spring 
wood  arranged  in  one  or  several 
rows  mark  the  annual  deposit, 
while  the  minute  pores  of  the 
summer  wood  arranged  in  con- 
centric wavy  lines  are  so  peculiar 
as  to  distinguish  this  wood  from 
all  others.  The,  tall,  straight  trunks  afford  pieces  of  con- 
siderable size.  /  Elm  piles  sustain  constant  and  severe  shocks 
for  long  intervals.  The  grain  arrangement  of  elm  is  often 
very  beautiful,  so  that  it  is  increasingly  used  for  decoration. 
It  is  more  commonly  employed  in  the  construction  of  cars, 
wagons,  boats,  agricultural  implements,  machinery,  and  fur- 
niture. 

The  shape  of  the  trees  is  so  marked  as  to  cause  them  to  be 
easily  noted.  Fifteen  or  sixteen  species  have  been  recognized. 
Five  are  known  to  exist  in  the  eastern  American  forests,  and 
all  of  them  furnish  good  wood  of  commercial  importance. 
Ulmus  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  elm. 


ELM  ( Ulmus  americand). 


Geo.  B.  Emerson's  "Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachusetts." 


42  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Elm.  Ulmus  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth. ) 

White  Elm  (local  and  common  name). 

Water  Elm  (Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,    la.,    Mich.,   Minn., 

Neb.). 

Elm  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  }.,  Pa.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  la.,  Wis.). 
American  Elm  (Vt.,   Mass.,   R.   I.,    X.  V.,    Del.,   Pa.,   N.  C., 
Miss.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ohio,  Kans.,  Neb.,  Mich.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains,  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  westward 
intermittently  to  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  seven  feet  in 
diameter.  Characteristic  and  beautiful  form,  smooth  buds; 
leaves,  smaller  than  those  of  Slippery  Elm,  are  rough  only  when 
rubbed  one  way. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  yellowish  white,  rather 
coarse-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  tough,  fibrous,  difficult  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Flooring,  wheel-stock,  cooperage,  ship-building,  flumes,  piles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
34  (U.  S.  Forestry  Division.)* 

40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,540,000  (average  of  18  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,060,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,300  (average  of  18  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,  100. 

Remarks. 

The  concentration  of  foliage  at  top,  together  with  the  form  of 
the  tree,  renders  it  valuable  in  landscape  work.  It  does  not 
cause  dense  shade.  Elm  and  silver-maple  trees  are  among 
the  first  to  show  life  in  spring.  Discarded  brownish  scales 
then  cover  ground  in  vicinity. 


*  See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROAD  LEAF   WOODS.  43 

Cork  Elm.  Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Cork  Elm  (local  and  common  Rock  Elm  (R.  I. ,  W.  Va. ,  Ky. , 
name).  Mo.,  111.,  Wis.,  la.,  Mich., 

Hickory  Elm  (Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Nebr.). 

la.).  White  Elm  (Ont.). 

Cliff  Elm  (Wis.). 

Locality. 

Quebec  and  Vermont,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Tennessee.  Best  developed  in  southern  Ontario  and 
Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Thick,  corky,  irregular  projections  give  bark  a  shaggy  appear- 
ance and  mark  the  species. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  often  tinged  with  red;  sapwood 
yellowish  or  greenish  white.  Compact  structure,  fibres  inter- 
laced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  tough,  difficult  to  split,  susceptible 
of  a  beautiful  polish,  elastic. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  agricultural  implements,  wheel-stocks,  railway  ties,  sills, 
bridge-timbers,  axe-helves,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15, 100. 

Remarks. 

Cork  Elm  is  the  best  of  the  elm  woods, 


44  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES,  OF  WOOD. 

(  Ulmus  pubescens  Walt. 
Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm.        Ulmuspulva  j/tcAx. 


Ulmusfulva 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm  (local         Redwooded  Elm  (Tenn.). 
and  common  name).  Moose  Elm  (occasional). 

Rock  Elm  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas.  Best  developed  in  Western  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty-five  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Characteristic  shape,  mucilaginous  inner  bark.  Buds  hairy. 
Leaves,  larger  than  American  Elm,  are  rough  when  rubbed 
either  way. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown  or  red,  sapwood  lighter,  compact 
structure,  annual  layers  marked  by  rows  of  large  open  ducts. 
Heartwood  greatly  preponderates. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  fence-posts,  rails,  railway  ties,  sills,  sleigh- 
runners,  and  wheel-stocks.  Mucilaginous  bark,  employed  in 
medicine. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300. 
Remarks. 

Mucilaginous  inner  bark  renders  this  species  unmistakable. 
Ihis  bark  is  used  in  medicine. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  45 

Wing  Elm,  Winged  Elm.     Ulmus  a/a/a  Michx. 
Nomenclature. 

Wing  Elm,  Winged  Elm  (local  Mountain  Elm,  Red  Elm  (Fla., 

and  common  names).  Ark.). 

Wahoo,  Whahoo  (W.  Va.,  N.  Elm,  Witch  Elm  (W.  Va.). 

C.,  S.  C.,   La.,   Tex.,  Ky.,  Water  Elm  (Ala.). 

Mo.).  Small-leaved  Elm  (N.  C.). 

Cork  Elm,  Corky  Elm   (Fla.,  Wahoo  Elm  (Mo.). 
S.  C,  Tex.). 

Locality. 

Southern  United  States,   Virginia  and  Florida  westward  inter- 
mittently to  southern  Illinois  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  feet  or  more  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.    Corky 
' '  wings  ' '  on  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Color     brownish,     sapwood     lighter,     close-grained,     compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  tough. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

740,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 
Remarks. 

Not  a  very  common  tree. 


MAPLE. 

• 

(Acer.) 

The  maples  grow  on  all  of  the  continents  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  known  species  belong  in 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Orient.  The  principal  European 
species  (Acer  pseudo-platanus)  is  the  European  scycamore.* 
The  hard  or  sugar  maple  (Acer  sacchanint)  is  one  of  the 
principal  deciduous  trees  of  North  America.  / 

Maple  wood  t  is  characterized  by  its  appearance  and  by  its 
fine  compact  texture.  The  first  quality  is  so  marked  that 
selected  pieces  take  rank  among  the  most  beautiful  of  cabinet 
woods;  the  last  is  so  pronounced  as  to  fit  it  for  carvings  and 
even  for  type.  "Birdseye,"  "blister,"  and  "curly" 
maples  are  not  from  different  species,  but  are  the  results  of 
fibre  distortions,  possible  in  some  form  in  any  tree  of  any 
species,  but  peculiarly  liable  to  occur  in  the  maple ;  birdseye 
and  blister  effects  for  the  most  part  in  the  hard  maples,  curly 
effects  in  the  hard,  but  generally  in  the  softer,  species.  The 
distortions  do  not  occur  in  all  trees,  and  it  is  seldom  possible 
to  tell  whether  the  woods  are  thus  figured  until  after  the  trees 
have  been  cut.  Maple  wood  shrinks  moderately,  stands  well 
in  protected  places,  is  strong,  tough,  but  not  durable  when 
exposed.  Pores  are  not  arranged  in  circles,  but  are  scattered 
irregularly  throughout  the  layers.  Maple  is  used  for  ceiling, 
flooring,  panelling,  car  and  ship  construction,  shoe-lasts,  shoe- 
pegs,  furniture,  school  supplies,  implements,  and  machinery. 
Sugar  is  principally,  although  not  exclusively,  present  in  the 
sap  of  the  sugar  maple.  \  The  softer  species  are  sometimes 

*  See  Sycamore,  page  65. 

f  These  notes  apply  to  the  American  product. 

J  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Michigan  produce  the  larger  portion  of  the  about  fifty 
million  pounds  of  sugar  and  three  million  gallons  of  syrup  annually  manufactured 
in  the  United  States.  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Fisheries,  Game,  and  Forest 
Commissioners,  New  York,  1897,  p.  308. 

46 


PLATE  8.     SUGAR  MAPLE  (Acer  saccharum\ 


"Curly  "  Maple  Wood  (dissection). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS. 


tapped,  and  sugar  is  also  present  in  the  sap  of  other  trees,  such 
as  the  butternut  and  birch.  A  sugar  maple  will,  on  an 
average,  produce  about  twenty-five  gallons  of  sap,  containing 
a  total  of  about  six  pounds  of  sugar,  in  a  season. 

The  Boxelder  (Acer  negundd)  is  a  true  maple,  remarkable 
in  that  it  is  widely  distributed  from  Canada  to  Mexico   and 
from    the    Atlantic    to    the    Rocky 
Mountains,    on    low    bottom    lands, 
and    at  elevations    of  five  thousand 
and  six  thousand  feet.*     The  trees 
are  beautiful  and,  like  other  maples 
are  valued  for  ornamental  purposes. 
The  soft,    light  wood  is  not  partic- 
ularly noted,  although  occasionally 
used  for  woodenware,  interior  finish, 
and    paper-pulp.      Small    quantities 
of  sugar  are  present  in  the   sap  of 
this  tree. 

The  maples  may  be  told  by  their 
leaves  of  characteristic  shape,  but 
chiefly  by  their  two-seeded  fruit  or 
"  keys,"  the  two  wings  of  which 
spread  differently  in  different  species. 
The  leaves  of  some  species  change 
in  autumn  from  green  to  red  and  other  brilliant  colors.  Those 
of  other  species  change  to  yellow  without  trace  of  red.  Sixty 
to  seventy  species  have  been  distinguished,  nine  of  which  occur 
in  North  America. 


^  Boxddei.      /;>  Hard  or  Sugar 

Maple.    c,  Soft  or  Red  Maple. 
<*>  S°ft  or  Silver  MaPle- 


*  Sargent. 


4S  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Acer  saccharum  Marsh. 
Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple.       -j   ^  sacch.jnnum  Wang^ 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple  (local  Rock  Maple  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  H., 

and  common  names).  Conn.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y., 

Black  Maple  (Fla.,  Ky.,  N.  C.).  Tenn.,     111.,     Mich.,     la., 

Sugar  Tree  (frequent).  Kans.,  Wis.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Best  development  Maine  to  Minnesota;  range  extends  southward 
to  Florida  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  and  more  in  height,  one  and  one- 
half  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  fruit  or  "  maple-key  " 
with  wings  less  than  right  angles  ripen  in  early  autumn;  one 
seed-cavity  is  usually  empty.  Foliage  turns  to  brilliant  reds 
and  other  colors  later.  Large  impressive  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  compact 
structure,  occasional  "curly,"  "blister,"  or  "  birdseye " 
effects. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  susceptible  of  good  polish,  wears 
evenly,  not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  shoe-lasts,  piano-actions,  wooden  type  for  showbills, 
pegs,  interior  finish,  llooring,  ship-keels',  vehicles,  fuel, 
veneers,  rails,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,070,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 
Remarks. 

Birdseye,  blister,  and  to  a  less  extent  curly  and  landscape 
effects  pronounced  in  this  species.  Saccharum  refers  to  sugar 
manufactured  from  the  sap.  Hard  maple  is  because  of  hard- 
ness of  wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  49 


Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple.      \  A,C€ 

(  Acer  dasycarpum  Ehr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple  (local  White  Maple  (Me.  ,  Vt.  ,  R.  I. 

and  common  names).  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va. 

Swamp  Maple  (W.  Va.,  Md.).  N.    C.,    S.   C.,    Ga.,   Fla. 

Water  Maple  (Pa.,  W.  Va.).  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo. 

River  Maple    (Me.,    N.    H.,  111.,    Ind.,    Kans.,    Nebr. 

R.  I.,  W.  Va.,  Minn.).  Minn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Indian  Territory.  Best  development  in  lower  Ohio 
River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.  Three  to 
five  feet  in  diameter.  Fine  shape,  sometimes  suggests  elm. 
Fruit  or  "maple-key"  with  long,  stiff,  more  than  right- 
angled  wings  ripens  in  early  summer.  Leaves  whitish 
beneath,  turn  showing  yellow,  but  little  or  no  red,  in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  ivory-white,  fine  grain, 
compact  structure.  Fibres  sometimes  twisted,  waved,  or 
curly. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  brittle,  easily  worked,  moderately  strong;  receives  high 
polish.  Not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  turned  work,  interior  decoration,  flooring,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,570,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,400. 

Remarks.  , 

Waved,  spiral,  or  curly  figure  pronounced  in  this  species,  very 
real  resemblance  to  lights  and  shadows  on  planed  surfaces. 
Small  quantities  of  sugar  present  in  sap,  occasionally  utilized. 


5o  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Red  Maple,  Swamp  Maple.    Acer  rubrum  Linn. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Red    Maple,    Swamp    Maple  Water  Maple  (Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 

(local  and  common  names).          Ky. ,  Mo. ). 

Soft  Maple  (Vt.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  White  Maple  (Me.,  N.  H.). 

Va.,    Miss.,    Mo.,    Kans.,  Red  Flower  (N.  Y.). 
Neb.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  and  more  in  height,  two  and  one-half  to 
four  feet  in  diameter.  Red  twigs  and  flowers  in  early  spring. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  lighter,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure.  Red  blossoms,  twigs,  and  stems. 
Leaves  turn  scarlet  in  autumn. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Easily  worked,  heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  elastic,  qualities 
between  those  of  silver  and  sugar  maple. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  in  cabinet-making,  turnery,  woodenware,  gun- 
stocks,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,340,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,000. 
Remarks. 

Occasionally  shows  "curly"  figure.  Trees  are  occasionally 
tapped  and  small  quantities  of  sugar  are  obtained  from  the 
sap. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  51 

Oregon  Maple.  Acer  macrophyllum  Pursh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Oregon  Maple  (Oreg.,  Wash.).         Broad-leaved  Maple  (Central 
White  Maple  (Oreg.,  Wash.).  Calif.,    Willamette   Valley 

Maple  (Calif.).  Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Alaska  to  California.     Best  in  rich  bottom  lands  of  southern 
Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,   three   to  five  feet  in 
diameter.     Beautiful  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish     brown,    sapwood    whitish,     close-grained,     compact 
structure,  occasionally  figured. 

Structural  Qualities. 

Light,  hard,  strong;  receives  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Locally  used  for  tool-handles,  turned  work,  and  furniture. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

3°. 
Modulus  .of  Elasticity. 

i,  100,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
O 

9720. 

Remarks. 

Ornamental  tree  has  been  introduced  into  Europe.     Said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  valuable  Pacific  coast  broadleaf  woods. 


- 


LO 


52  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

V  ,  ,,     .  (  Acer  negundo  Linn. 

Boxelder,  Ash-leaved  Maple.       j  Negun£  aceroides  Moenc^ 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Boxelder,    Ash-leaved    Maple  Stinking  Ash  (S.  C. ). 

(local  and  common  names).  Negundo  Maple  (111.). 

Red  River  Maple,  Water  Ash  Three-leaved  Maple  (Fla.). 

(Dak.).  Black  Ash  (Tenn.). 

Cut-leaved  Maple  (Colo.).  Sugar  Ash  (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  Ocean  westward  intermittently  to  Rocky  Mountains, 
Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  three  feet 
in  diameter.  Wings  to  keys  are  straight  or  incurved.  Leave 
sparingly  and  coarsely  toothed,  show  yellow  but  little  or  no 
red  in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood,  cream-white;  sapwood  similar;  close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  not  strong,  soft. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  cooperage,  etc.,  paper-pulp  (largely),  occasionally 
interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

82,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7500. 
Remarks. 

A  rapid  grower.  Withstands  severe  climatic  changes.  A  good 
tree  to  plant  in  naturally  treeless  sections.  Sugar  is  sometimes 
obtained  from  the  sap  of  this  species.  The  "  Boxelder"  is 
a  true  maple. 


PLATE  9.     WALNUT  (Juglatu). 


Black  Walnut  Tree  (Juglans  nigra^. 
Black,  White,  and  English  Walnuts. 


Black  Walnut  Trunk  (Juglans  nigra} 
Black  Walnut  Wood  (Juglans  nigra). 


WALNUT. 
(Juglans.) 

The  English  or  Royal  Walnut  (Juglans  regia),  a  native  of 
Persia,  was  the  only  available  species  of  this  genus  until  the 
introduction  of  the  nearly  similar  Black  Walnut  of  North 
America.*  As  oak  gave  way  first  to  soft  woods  for  construc- 
tion, so  it  gave  way  first  to  walnut  for  cabinet  purposes.  The 
wood  soon  became  very  fashionable,  and  exorbitant  prices 
were  paid  for  it.  Walnut  was  extremely  popular  in  the  United 
States  until  about  1880,  when  oak  began  to  resume  its  place  as 
the  popular  cabinet  wood.  The  nuts  of  the  English  or  Persian 
walnut  are  better  than  those  of  the  American  species,  but  the 
wood  of  the  latter  is  superior. 

/The  use  of  walnut  wood  for  gun-stocks  began  in  Europe, ) 
the  demands  early  becoming  so  great  that,  until  the  general 
peace  following  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  greater  part  of  the 
French  product  was  diverted  for  that  purpose,  while  prices  rose 
in  England  so  that  six  hundred  pounds  sterling  is  reported  to 
have  been  paid  for  a  single  tree.  In  spite  of  the  innumerable 
woods  that  have  since  been  introduced,  this  one  is  yet  regarded 
as  best  for  gun-stocks. t  Walnut  is  a  firm,  hard,  chocolate— - 
colored  wood,  with  pores  not  arranged  in  rings  but  scattered 
somewhat  irregularly.  }  The  sombre,  although  rich,  color  has 
been  objected  to  for  some  positions.  Large  excrescences  or 
"burrs  "  are  common  on  foreign  trees,  particularly  those  near 
the  Black  Sea  and  in  Italy.  The  grain  in  such  growths  is 
beautifully  irregular,  and  the  wood,  known  as  "  burl,"  is  prized 
for  veneers.  /  Trees  are  very  scarce,  and  walnut  is  now  seldom 
seen  save  in  cabinet  work  or  gun-stocks.  The  related  White 
Walnut  or  Butternut  (Juglans  cinered)  affords  a  less-prized  and 

*  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

\  France  used  twelve  thousand  trees  in  1806.     (Stevenson's  "Trees  of  Com- 
merce," p.  77.) 

53 


54  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

lighter- tinted  wood.  (The  nuts  of  the  walnuts  are  a  source  of 
profit.  )  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  English  Walnut  (Juglans 
regia),  which  is  extensively  cultivated  for  its  fruit  in  California. 
The  City  of  Pasadena  has  in  a  single  season  (1904)  realized 
$7375  from  sixteen  hundred  fifteen-year-old  trees  cultivated  in 
connection  with  its  sewage  farm.* 

Black  walnut  trees  seldom  form  forests  by  themselves,  but 
occur  generally  in  mixed  growth.  They  grow  quickly,  but  the 
heart  wood  for  which  the  tree  is  valued  begins  to  form  only 
when  the  tree  is  at  a  considerable  age,  so  that  a  number  of 
years  must  elapse  before  a  tree  can  produce  wood  of  the 
desired  quality.  Trees  one  hundred  years  old  furnish  the  best 
quality  of  wood. 

Small  pieces  of  dark,  rich  brown  wood  are  available  from  the 
Mexican  or  Arizona  Walnut  (Juglans  rupestris),  which  grows  in 
>parsely  settled  areas  from  Texas  and  Arizona  southward  into 
Mexico,  and  is  also  known  as  the  Western,  Dwarf,  Little,  and 
California  Walnut.  The  California  Walnut  (Juglans  californica) 
inhabits  the  coast  region,  intermittently,  from  the  Sacramento 
River  to  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains.  Trees  are  often  very 
small,  but  diameters  of  fifteen  inches  are  not  uncommon.  The 
blue  brown  woods,  while  suited  for  cabinet  making,  are  seldom 
used.  Both  Mexican  and  California  species  afford  coarse  nuts, 
gathered  by  children.  The  English  Walnut  is  sometimes  grafted 
on  trees  of  the  last  named  species. 

Circassian  Walnut  wood  is  distinct  from  common  black  walnut 
in  that  the  color  is  not  solid.  There  are  large  open  figures,  waves 
and  streaks  showing  black  with  yellowish  white.  The  rich  effects 
and  the  scarcity  of  this  product  rank  it  with  satinwood.  It  is  used 
in  piano  cases,  panel  work,  and  other  costly  decorations. 

Walnut  trees  may  be  known  by  their  nuts,  the  husks  or  pods 
of  which  adhere  unbroken,  instead  of  loosening,  completely 
divided  into  four  sections,  as  with  the  hickories.  Juglans  is  from 
Joins t  signifying  Jove's  and  glans,  signifying  acorn.  This  nut, 
not  the  fruit  of  the  oak,  was  the  acorn  of  the  ancients.| 

*  The  net  returns  of  the  preceding  season  amounted  to  $4738. 
t  The  ancients  considered  the  shade  of  the  walnut  as  harmful  to  all  life.     It  is 
certain  some  vegetation  is  affected,  probably  by  properties  in  fallen  leaves. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  55 

Black  Walnut.  Juglans  nigra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Walnut  (local  and  common  name). 

Walnut  (N.  Y.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Fla.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  la.). 
Locality. 

Ontario  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  three  to 
eight  feet  in  diameter.  A  tall  handsome  tree  with  rough 
brownish,  almost  black,  bark.  Large,  rough-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark,  rich,  chocolate-brown.  Thin  sapwood  much 
lighter,  rather  coarse-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  easily  worked,  durable,  susceptible  to  high 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  gun-stocks,  also  formerly  furniture  and  decora- 
tion. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,  IOO. 

Remarks. 


The  English,  Royal,  or  Persian  Walnut  (Juglans  regia)  affords 
nearly  similar  wood.  Widely  distributed  over  Europe.  Italian  trees 
furnish  best,  French  next,  and  English  least  desirable,  palest  and 
coarsest  wood.  Occasional  trees  in  Eastern  United  States,  as  New 
York;  very  plentiful  in  California. 


56  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Butternut,  White  Walnut.    Juglans  cinerea  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Butternut,      White      Walnut         Walnut  (Minn.), 
(local  and  common  names).          White  Mahogany. 
Oil  Nut  (Me.,  N.  H.,  S.  C.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia,  westward  to  Dakota  and  Arkansas. 
Best  in  Ohio  River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Medium  size,  sometimes  seventy-five  feet  or  over  in  height,  two 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Branches  widespread;  large-sized 
oblong  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  gray-brown,  darkening  with  exposure;  sap- 
wood  nearly  white,  coarse-grained  compact  structure,  attrac- 
tive. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  easily  worked.  Susceptible  of  high 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Interior  finish,  cabinet-work.      Inner  bark  furnishes  yellow  dye. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  150,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 
Remarks. 

The  sap  contains  sugar  and  is  occasionally  mixed  with  maple- 
sap  in  the  manufacture  of  "maple"  sugar.  Butternuts  when 
half  grown  are  often  pickled.  The  bark  affords  a  mild  cathartic 
that  resembles  rhubarb  in  its  action  and  that  was  much  em- 
ployed •  by  the  physicians  attached  to  the  American  Army 
dunnp  the  Revolutionary  War.  Butternut  wood  is  one  of  the 
cheaper  woods  that  must  now  be  employed. 


PLATE  10.     HICKORY  (Hicoria  ovata). 


HICKORY. 

(Hicoria  or  Carya.) 

\The  Hickories  occur  only  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  They  produce  woods  in  which  the  qualities  of 
toughness,  elasticity,  and  resilience  are  unusually  pronounced,) 
and  since  these  qualities  are  greatest  in  the  sapwood, 
hickories  are  peculiar  in  that  the  sapwood  is  more  valuable 
than  the  heart.  Second-growth  wood  is  much  prized,  since, 
being  younger,  it  contains  more  of  the  pliable  sapwood.*  Most 
second  growth  woods  are  regarded  as  being  inferior  to  first 
growth  woods  because  sapwood  is  usually  less  desirable.  The 
reputation  of  American  hammers  and  axes  owe  much  to  the 
qualities  of  their  hickory  handles. 

Hickory  is  not  durable  when  exposed  and  is  more  or  less 
subject  to  attack  by  boring-insects.  It  is  used  for  implements, 
machinery,  carriages,  and  the  like;  hickory  axe-helves  have 
no  superiors.  The  nuts  of  the  shagbark  or  white  hickory  are 
a  source  of  considerable  profit.  The  pecan  (Hicoria  pecan) 
affords  wood  so  inferior  as  to  be  little  used  in  construction, 
although  it  makes  an  excellent  fuel. }  Pecans  are  planted  in 
many  of  the  Southern  States  because  of  the  nuts,  for  which  a 
considerable  demand  exists. 

The  Hickories  are  known  by  their  nuts,  the  husks  or  pods 
of  which  loosen  completely  from  the  nut  in  four  pieces,  instead 
of  adhering  unbroken  as  in  the  case  of  the  walnuts.  The  nine 
species  are  American  trees,  eight  of  them  being  natives  of  the 
United  States.  Carya  was  the  Greek  name  of  the  common 
walnut.  Hickory  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian 
powcokicora,  a  liquor  once  obtained  from  the  nuts  of  the 
hickory. 

*  See  Second -growth  Ash. 

57 


58  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Shagbark  (Hickory),  Shellbark  (Hickory).      { 

Shagbark 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth. ) 

Shagbark  or  Shellbark  Hickory  Hickory  (Vt. ,  Ohio). 

(local  and  common  name).  Upland  Hickory  (111.). 

Scalybark    Hickory    (W.  Va.,  White  Hickory  (la.,  Ark.). 

S.C.,  Ala.).  Walnut  (Vt.,  N.  Y.). 

Shellbark  (R.  I.,   N.  Y.,   Pa.,  Sweet  Walnut  (Vt.). 

N.  C.).  Shagbark  Walnut  (Vt.). 
Shagbark  (R.  I.,  Ohio). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota  and 
Texas.  Wide  range,  best  in  Ohio  valley. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher;  two 
and  one-half  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  Shaggy  bark,  thin- 
shelled  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  ivory-  or  cream-colored. 
Close-grained,  compact  structure.  Annual  rings  clearly 
marked.  Medullary  rays  numerous  but  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  exceptionally  tough  and  flexible, 
not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  agricultural  implements,  wheels,  and  runners, 
axe-handles,  baskets,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

51  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

52. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,390,000  (average  of  137  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,900,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000  (average  of  137  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

The  nuts  form  an  important  article  of  commerce.  "  Shagbark  " 
refers  to  the  shaggy  appearance  of  the  bark. 

*  See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  59 

Pignut  (Hickory).      {*%%££  ™  . 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pignut    (local    and    common  Bitternut  (Ark.,  111.,  la.,  Wis.). 

name).  White  Hickory  (N.  H.,  la.). 

Black    Hickory    (Miss.,    La.,  Broom  Hickory  (Mo.). 

Ark.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  la.).  Hardshell  (W.  Va.). 

Brown  Hickory  (Del.,  Miss.,  Red  Hickory  (Del.). 

Tex.,  Tenn.,  Minn.).  Switchbud  Hickory  (Ala.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  southern 
Nebraska  and  eastern  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy -five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher; 
Two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Rather  smooth  bark.  Large 
thick -shelled  nuts,  kernels  often  astringent  or  bitter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  and  dark  brown,  thick  sapwood,  lighter, 
nearly  white.  Close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  flexible,  tough,  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  shagbark  hickory. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

56  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

51- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,730,000  (average  of  30  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,460,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

18,700  (average  of  30  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
14,800. 

Remarks. 

Nuts  are  devoured  by  pigs,  whence  the  name  porcina. 


*  See  page  8. 


6o  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Hicoria  alba  Linn. 
Mocker  Nut  (Hickory),  j  Carya  tomentosa  ^uit. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Mocker  Nut,  Whiteheart  Hick-  Hickory  (Ala.,  Tex.,  Pa.,  S. 

ory    (local    and    common  C,  Neb.). 

n/me^.  Big-bud,  Red  Hickory  (Fla. ). 

Bullnut  (N.  Y.,   Fla.,   Miss.,  Common  Hickory  (N.  C). 

Tex       Mo.,     Ohio.,     111.,  White  Hickory  (Pa.,  S.  C.). 

Minn.).  Hickory  Nut  (Ky.,  W.  Va.). 

Black  Hickory  (Tex.,  Miss.,  Hog  Nut  (Del.). 

La.,  Mo.).  Hard  bark  Hickory  (111.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Missoun  and 
Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  and  one-half  to 
three  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  A  tall  slender  tree  with 
rough,  but  not  shaggy,  bark.  Thick  shell,  edible  nut. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood    rich    dark   brown,    thick    sapwood    nearly   white, 

close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  strong,  and  flexible. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  shellbark  hickory. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

53  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

51- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,320,000  (average  of  75  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,630,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,200  (average  of  75  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

The  most  generally  distributed  species  of  the  genus  in  the  South. 
Mocker  nut  ormokernut  is  said  (Britton)  to  be  from  a  Dutch 
word  meaning  hammer,  or  else  (Keeler)  from  disappointing 
quality  of  nuts. 

*  See  page  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS  61 

Pecan,  (Hickory).    \Hicoria  pecan  MarSh 

3  '      (  Carya  ohvceformis  Nutt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pecan  (local  and  common  name). 
Pecan  Nut,  Pecan-tree,  Pecanier  (La.). 

Locality. 

Valley  of  Mississippi,  southward  to  Louisiana,  Texas,  and 
Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  sometimes  higher.  Two 
and  one-half  to  five  feet  in  diameter.  A.  tall  tree,  smooth- 
shelled  oblong  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  lighter 
brown.  Close-grained  and  compact,  medullary  rays  numerous 
but  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fuel,  seldom  used  in  construction. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
49  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,530,000  (average  of  37  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

940,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,300  (average  of  37  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

8,  200. 

Remarks. 

Grows  on  borders  of  streams  in  low  rich  soil.  Largest  and 
most  important  tree  of  western  Texas.  The  sweet  edible  nuts 
form  an  important  article  of  commerce. 


See  page  S. 


CHESTNUT,  CHINQUAPIN. 

(Castanea.) 

The  chestnut  is  found  in  the  temperate  regions  of  central 
and  southern  Europe,  northern  Africa,  China,  Japan,  and 
eastern  North  America.  \[he  wood  is  valued  in  construction, 
and  the  much-prized  nuts  are  regarded  as  a  food  rather  than  a 
confection.^  European  chestnut  wood  was  once  high  in  favor, 
although  examination  of  structures  in  which  it  was  supposed 
to  have  been  used  indicates  that  in  some  instances  oak  had 
been  mistaken  for  it  and  had  been  employed  in  its  place. 

(The  North  American  chestnut  affords  a  weak,  brittle,  but 
easily  worked  and  very  durable  wood,  such  as  is  admirably 
adapted  for  beams,  ties,  and  sills,  where  lightness  and 
durability  rather  than  much  transverse  strength  are  required.) 
Trees  in  Europe  have  attained  to  great  size  and  age.  Micheaux 
mentions  one  thirty  feet  in  circumference  six  feet  from  the 
ground  and  said  to  have  been  standing  for  a  thousand  years. 
The  famous  Mt.  Etna  chestnut*  is  reported  to  have  measured 
two  hundred  and  four  feet  in  circumference.  Large  trunks  are 
apt  to  be  hollow,  affording  brittle,  useless  wood.  The 
botanical  relation  between  the  American  and  European  chest- 
nuts is  not  distinct.  Some  consider  the  former  a  distinct 
species,  others  a  variety  only.  The  name  "Chinquapin" 
applies  to  two  distinct  botanical  species,  one,  the  Castanea 
pumila,  closely  related  to  the  common  chestnut;  the  other, 
Castanopsis  chrysophylla,  belonging  to  the  same  family 
(Cupuliferae),  but  to  quite  another  genus.  Both  afford  woods 
resembling,  but  heavier  than,  chestnut. 

The  Western,  Golden  or  California  Chinquapin  (Castanopis 
chrysophylla)  has  a  light,  compact,  soft,  reddish  wood,  that 

*  "  Castagno  di  cento  cavalli,"  so  called  from  having  sheltered  100  mounted 
cavaliers,  measured  by  Brydon  in  1770.  It  had  the  appearance  of  five  distinct 
trees,  but  was  probably  one  trunk.  (G.  B.  Emerson,  "  Trees  and  Shrubs  of 
Massachusetts,"  Vol.  I,  page  192.) 

62 


PLATE  11.     CHESTNUT  (Castanea  dentata). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  63 

suggests  chestnut  and  that  is  sometimes  locally  used  for  imple- 
ments. The  handsome  evergreen  leaves  have  golden  under  sur- 
faces. The  sweet  hard-shelled  nuts  resemble  filberts.  The  trees 
are  very  beautiful  and  are  fitted  for  landscape  purposes.  They 
grow  from  Oregon  to  Central  California.  The  Golden  Chestnut, 
which  is  the  nearest  native  Pacific  Coast  approach  to  the  Eastern 
or  American  chestnut,  is  sometimes  called  the  Evergreen  Chestnut. 
^The  American  Chestnut  (Castanea  vulgaris)  may  be  regarded 
for  its  wood,  its  tanin  and  its  fruit.  The  very  durable  wood  is 
one  of  the  best  of  its  range  for  fence- posts  and  mudsills.  Hough 
mentions  a  fence-rail  that  was  good  after  having  been  exposed  for 
about  one  hundred  years.  This  durability  is  largely  due  to  the 
presence  of  tannic  acid  fhat  is  so  abundant  as  to  be  separated  and 
employed  in  tanning.*/  The  nuts  are  finer  and  sweeter  than 
those  produced  by  foreign  species,  yet  American  chestnut  trees 
are  seldom  cultivated  for  nuts.  The  Spanish,  French  and  Italian 
nuts  are  highly  prized  and  are  gathered  as  commercial  crops. 
The  best  of  these  nuts  are  imported  or  are  eaten  when  fresh,  the 
others  are  dried  and  made  into  a  flour  that  is  used  for  bread 
and  cake.  Some  nuts  are  candied  (marrons  glaces).  The  Italian 
government  encourages  the  production  of  nuts  by  gratuitously 
distributing  young  trees. f  The  American  chestnut  tree  is  equally 
worthy  of  cultivation  since  it  will  grow  rapidly  on  any  soil  within 
its  native  areas.  Its  wood  and  its  bi-products  are  likely  always 
to  be  in  demand. 

The  chestnut  may  be  known  by  its  large  prickly  burr,  contain- 
ing from  one  to  three  thin-shelled,  triangular,  wedge-shaped  nuts. 
Both  chinquapins  have  prickly  burrs  containing  one,  or  sometimes 
two,  sweet  edible  nuts.  Three  of  the  four  known  species  of  the 
genus  Castanea  grow  in  North  America,  one  the  common  chestnut 
(Castanea  vulgaris) ;  another  the  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumild) ; 
the  third  a  plant  never  attaining  to  the  size  of  a  tree.  The 
Chinquapin  (Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  is  the  only  North  Amer- 
ican representative  of  a  genus  including  twenty-five  species. 

*  Chestnut  leaves  are  sometimes  made  into  a  tea,  employed  in  connect.o  with 
whooping  cough.  (U.  S.  Dispensatory.) 

tPenn.  Dept.  Forestry  Statement,  1901,  1902.  p.  93,  101.  "  Chest n at  in 
Southern  Maryland,"  Zon.  U.  S.  Forestry  Bureau  Bulletin  No.  53. 


64  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Castanea  dentala  {Marsh]  Borkh. 
Chestnut.  •<  Castanea  vesca  var.  amer-icana  Michx. 

(  Castanea  vulgar  is  var.  americana  A.  de  C. 

Nomenclature. 

Chestnut  (local  and  common  name). 

Locality. 

New  England,  New  York  to  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi. 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  Michigan.  Best  on  western  slope  of 
Alleghany  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  five  to  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  Fine  characteristic  shape,  not  easily  distin- 
guished from  Red  Oak  in  winter.  Blossoms  in  midsummer. 
Prickly  burrs  contain  three  thin-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  liable  to  check  and  warp  in  drying. 
Easily  split.  Very  durable  in  exposed  positions. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  railway  ties,  posts,  fencing,  sills. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9800. 
Remarks. 

The  nuts  of  the  foreign  species  (C.  vesca)  as  well  as  those  of  the 
domestic  species  are  much  prized.  The  former  are  larger  and 
the  latter  sweeter.  One  of  the  latest  trees  to  blossom.  Foreign 
species  are  cultivated  in  California  for  their  nuts. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BRO  A  DLE/tF  WOODS.  65 

Chinquapin.  Castanea pumila  (Linn.]  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Chinquapin  (Del.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C.,  Ga., 
Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ohio,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Mich.). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkan- 
sas, Ohio,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

A  small  tree,  sometimes  forty-five  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet 
or  over  in  diameter.  Sometimes  reduced  to  low  shrub. 
Small  prickly  burr  with  single  small  chestnut-colored  nut. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown,  sapwood  hardly  distinguishable. 
Coarse-grained,  annual  layers  marked  by  rows  of  open  ducts. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Rather  heavy,  hard,  strong.  Durable  in  exposed  positions. 
Liable  to  check  in  drying. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Posts,  rails,  railway  ties,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,620,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 
Remarks. 


The  Chinquapin  (Castanopsis  chrysophylla) ,  is  a  tree  with  char- 
acteristics between  oak  and  chestnut.  Its  wood  is  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  the  Chinquapin  Castanea  pumila,  and  is 
sometimes  used  for  implements.  It  is  native  in  Oregon  and 
California. 


BEECH.  IRONWOOD. 

(Fagus.)      (Carpinus,  Ostrya,  etc.) 

Beech    is    well    known    on    the    eastern    continent.       The 

common   beech    (Fagus   atropunicca)    is    the   only  American 

.  representative.       Eastern     species 

^^^^^    JL     ^ftft  kave  figured  in  literature  since  the 

(B^JNB  jfltt   Eg     time  of  Virgil.     The  northern  na- 

fy       tions  early  wrote  upon  thin  tablets 

_<r~"'-rT          5jH^^^        °f  beechwood,  and  hoc,   bok,  and 

^^H      •rl   A^  buclie,     the    northern    names    for 

beech,  finally  gave  origin  to  the 

^^(Fagusatropunicea).       ^^   ^^      American    Indians 

believed  that  the  beech  was  proof  against  lightning. 

(  Beechwood  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  durable  when 
exposed,  and  somewhat  subject  to  attack  by  insects.  European 
engineers  employ  it  to  a  considerable  extent  in  construction, 
but  it  is  seldom  used  in  America  save  for  indoor  finish,  furni- 
ture, handles,  flooring,  and  the  like./  The  small  edible  nuts, 
known  as  beech-mast,  are  pressed  abroad  for  a  fixed  oil, 
resembling  and  used  in  place  of  that  from  the  olive.  They 
are  seldom  gathered  in  this  country,  but  are  devoured  by 
animals.  Beech-trees  have  smooth,  light-colored  bark,  and 
are  very  attractive  in  their  winter  appearance.  They  may  be 
recognized  earlier  in  the  season  by  their  small  prickly  burrs, 
each  containing  two  triangular,  sharp-edged  nuts.  There  are 
fifteen  or  more  species  known  to  belong  to  this  genus.  Fagus 
is  from  phago,  to  eat,  and  refers  to  the  nut. 

The  name  Ironwood  has  been  applied  to  Blue  Beech 
(Carpinus  caroliniana),  to  the  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  virginiand), 
and  to  at  least  eight  other  North  American  species  (affording 
unusually  hard  and  heavy  woods,  such  as  are  used  for  handles 

*Liber,  the  Latin  for  book,  is  from  liber,  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree,  while 
papyrus,  the  Latin  for  paper,  is  from  an  Egyptian  reed  of  that  name.  The 
words  "book,"  "library,"  and  "  paper"  are  thus  drawn  from  trees  and  plants. 

66 


PLATE  12.     BEECH  (Fagus). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  67 

and  implements  j*  Trunks  of  trees  affording  these  woods  are 
generally  small'  and  the  weight  of  the  woods  is  so  great  as 
to  prevent  their  use  in  construction. 

*  Prosopis  juliflora,  Olneya  tesota,  Guajacum  sanctum,  Cliftonia  monophylla, 
Cyrilla  racemiflora,  Exothea  paniculata,  Bumelia  tenax,  Bumelia  lycioides. 
(Sudworth.) 


The  Coffee,  Coffeenut,  Coffeebean,  Coffeebean-tree  or(  Mahogany 
(Gymnodadus  dioicu.^)  grows  best  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  Trees  are  cultivated  in  many  places.  The 
strong,  durable,  rich-brownish  wood  works  easily,  polishes  well  and  is 
well  suited  for  cabinet  worky  The  trees  are  valued  in  landscapes. 
The  beans  were  once  used  for  coffee. 


The  Hackberry,  Sugarberry,  One-berry,  Nettle-tree,  False  Elm  or 
Juniper  (Celtis  occidentalis)  grows  intermittently  from  Canada  to 
Florida  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  Arizona.  Isolated  specimens  are 
sometimes  locally  famed  as  ''unknown  trees."  The  rather  hard, 
strong  wood  is  sometimes  seen  in  fencing  and  in  cheap  furniture. 


6S  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

j  Fagus  atropunicea  (Marsh.}  Sudworth. 
Beech.  -j  pagus  ferrnginea  Ait. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Beech    (local    and    common         White    Beech    (Me.,    Ohio., 

name).  Mich. ). 

Red   Beech   (Me.,    Vt.,   Ky.,         Ridge  Beech  (Ark.). 

Ohio.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Wisconsin 
and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet,  occasionally  higher;  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Small  rough  burr  contains  two  thin-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish,  variable,  shades,  sapwood  white.  Rather 
close-grained,  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  strong,  tough,  not  durable  when  exposed.  Takes  fine 
polish.  Liable  to  check  during  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shoe-lasts,  plane-stocks,  ship-building,  handles,  and  fuel.  Car- 
pentry (abroad),  wagon-making,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

42. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,720,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 
Remarks. 

The  nuts  are  seldom  gathered  in  the  United  States,  nor  is  the 
wood  there  often  utilized  in  carpentry.  This  is  sometimes 
divided  commercially  into  Red  and  White  Beech,  according 
to  color  of  wood.  Such  division  has  no  botanical  basis. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  69 

Ironwood,  Blue  Beech.     Carpinus  caroliniana  Walt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood,  Blue  Beech  (local  Hornbeam     (Me.,     N.      H., 

and  common  name).  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 

Water  Beech   (R.    I.,    N.  Y.,  N.    J.,   Pa.,    Del.,    N.    C, 

Pa.,    Del.,   W.  Va.,   Ohio,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  111., 

111.,    Ind.,   Mich.,    Minn.,  Kans.,  Minn.). 

Nebr.,  Kans.). 

Locality. 

Quebec  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height.  Six  inches  to  occasionally  two  feet 
in  diameter.  A  small  tree,  dark  bluish-gray;  bark  resembles 
that  of  beech  save  in  color. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  thick  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  hard,  tough,  strong,  heavy,  very  stiff,  inclined  to  check 
during  seasoning,  not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Levers,  tool-handles,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,630,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Prized  by  wheelwrights  in  Europe.  Resemblance  of  bluish  bark 
to  light-gray  bark  of  beech  gave  rise  to  name. 


70  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Ironwood,  Hop  Hornbeam.     Ostrya  virginina  Willd. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood,     Hop    Hornbeam         Hornbeam    (R.    I.,     N.    Y., 

(local  and  common  names).  Fla.,  S.  C.,  La.). 

Leverwood  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,          Hardback  (Vt.). 
N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Kans.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  one  foot  or  less  in  diameter. 
The  bark  exhibits  long  vertical  rows  of  small  squares.  Small 
fruit  resembles  hops.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  birch. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sometimes  white,  sapwood  lighter 
or  white.  Close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  strong,  hard,  heavy,  tough,  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  levers,  tool-handles,  axe-helves,  mill-cogs,  wedges. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

51- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,950,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Trees  over  twelve  inches  in  diameter  are  often  hollow, 


PLATE  13.     SYCAMORE  (P/afanus  occiaentaiis}. 


.-X\  -W 


Quartered  Sycamore  Wood. 


SYCAMORE. 


(Plat  anus.} 

The  name  Sycamore  applies  to  a  maple  (Acer  pseudo- 
platanus}  in  Europe,  to  a  fig-tree  (Ftcus  sycomorus)  in  the 
Orient,*  and  to  the  buttonball  or  plane  tree  (Plat amis)  in 
North  America.  Of  the  plane  trees  (Plat anus]  the  common 
or  Oriental  plane  (Platanus  orientates)  is  a  native  of  Europe; 
the  plane,  buttonball,  or  sycamore  tree  (Platanus  occidentalis) 
is  a  native  and  common  tree  in  eastern  North  America;  and 
the  California  plane,  buttonball, 
or  sycamore  (Platanus  racemosa) 
is  a  native  of  western  North 
America. 

The  sycamore  stands  for  curi- 
osity, because  of  its  Biblical  as- 
sociation with  Zaccheus.  Many 
European  sycamores  were  planted 
by  religious  persons  during  the 
middle  ages  because  of  the  belief 
that  they  were  the  trees  thus  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible. 

The  woods  afforded  by  the 
American  sycamores  have  unusually  complicated,  cross- 
grained,  but  beautiful  structures,  difficult  to  work,  but  standing 
well  and  (valued  for  cabinet  work  and  small  articles.^  Ameri- 
can trees  are  often  very  large. 

American  buttonball  or  sycamore  trees  are  distinguished 
by  rough  balls  which  remain  hanging  on  long  stems  through- 
out the  winter.  The  bark  also  is  shed  to  an  unusual  extent ; 
flakes  of  the  outer  cover  drop  away,  exposing  smooth  inner 
surfaces  so  white  as  to  appear  as  if  painted.  Six  or  seven 
species  are  included  in  the  genus;  three  occur  in  North 
America.  Platanus  is  from  platus,  signifying  broad,  and  refers 
to  the  shape  of  the  leaves. 


SYCAMORE  (Platanus 
occidentalis). 


*  Brockhaus,  Konversations-Lexicon  (B.  15,  p.  536). 


71 


72  •    THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Sycamore.  ) 

Buttonwood.  >•  Platanus  occidentalis  Linn. 

Buttonball-tree.         J 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Sycamore,   Buttonwood,  But-  Plane  Tree  (R.  I.,  Del.,  S.  C., 

tonball-tree  (local  and  com-  Kans.,  Nebr.,  la.). 

mon  names).  Water  Beech  (Del.). 

Buttonball  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Fa.,  Platane  cotonier,   Bois  puant 

Fla.).  (La.). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas.  Best  in  bottom  lands  of  Ohio  and  Mississippi  River 
basins. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  over  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  six  to  sometimes 
twelve  feet  in  diameter.  Inner  bark  exposed  in  white  patches. 
Large  rough  balls  or  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained, 
compact  structures,  satiny  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 
Attractive  when  quartered. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  difficult  to  work,  not  strong,  stands  well  when  not 
exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Tobacco-boxes,  ox-yokes,  butcher-blocks,  cabinet-work. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,220,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9000. 
Remarks. 

Some  specimens  rank  among  the  largest  of  American  deciduous 
trees.  These  are  usually  hollow.  The  remarkably  rigid  bark 
does  not  stretch  to  accommodate  the  growth  and  is  thus  dis- 
carded to  an  unusual  degree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  73 

TxCalifornia  Sycamore.    Platanus  racemosa  Nutt. 
Nomenclature. 

Sycamore,  Buttonwood,  Buttonball  Tree,  Buttonball  (Call- 
fornia). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher; 
three  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  bark  exfoliates  in  irreg- 
ular patches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained, 
compact  structure,  medullary  rays  numerous  and  conspicu- 
ous. Beautiful  when  quartered. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Brittle,  very  difficult  to  split  and  to  season.  Qualities  similar 
to  those  of  P.  occidentalis. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Decoration,  furniture,  similar  to  P.  occidentalis. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

30. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

800,  ooo. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900. 

Remarks. 

Hough  mentions  *  a  tree  twenty-nine  feet  seven  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. 


*  "American  Woods,"  Part  6,  p.  36. 


BIRCH. 

(Betula.) 

The  birches  grow  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America, 
their  ranges  on  the  latter  continent  extending  far  into  the 
north.*  Their  history  is  remote  and  probably  began  with 
attention  to  the  bark  rather  than  to  the  wood. 

Birch-bark  is  smooth,  pliable,  water-tight,  and  by  reason 
of  its  resinous  oils  so  durable  that  it  often  remains  intact  long 
after  the  wood  inside  of  fallen  trees  has  disappeared.  (  It  is 
separable  into  thin  layers  and  was  early  employed  as  a  writing 
material. t  )  Houses  have  been  covered  by  it  and  it  has  been 
used  for  cordage,  utensils,  "damp  courses,"  and  even  rude 
clothing.  The  American  Indians  employed  it  for  canoes, 
tents,  troughs,  and  buckets.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy, 
strong,  fine-grained,  and  beautiful.  It  shrinks^  in  seasoning, 
works  easily,  stands  well  when  not  exposed,  vlt  is  used  for 
spools,  woodenware,  and  other  small  articles,  as  well  as  for 
interior  finish  and  cabinet  work.  Figured  birch  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  American  cabinet  woods.  |  Birch  is  often 
stained  so  as  to  imitate  cherry  and  mahogany;  the  best  imita- 
tions of  the  latter  wood  are  of  birch.  Birch  is  commercially 
divided,  according  to  the  quantity  of  heart  wood  present,  into 
white  birch  and  red  birch.  The  wood  is  "  white  "  when  the 
amount  is  small,  and  as  heartwood  increases  with  age  the 
same  tree  might  at  one  time  afford  white  and  at  another  red 
wood. 

The  paper  birch  (Betula  papyrifera)  is  the  American  species, 
most  noted  for  its  bark.  This  tree  prefers  the  north  and  thrives 


*  Birch  forms  large  forests  in  the  North. 

t  Pliny  and  Plutarch  agree  that  the  famous  books  of  Numa  Pompilius,  written 
700  years  before  Christ,  were  upon  birch-bark. 

t  The  banquet-hall  of  the  famous  Auditorium  Hotel  in  Chicago  is  finished  in 
birch. 

74 


PLATE  14.     BIRCH  (Betuid). 


Yellow  Birch  Tree  (Betula  /«/<•«)• 

Yellow  Birch  Foliage  (Belula  lutea).        Birch  Wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  75 

at  higher  latitudes  than  other  American  broadleaf  trees.  It  is 
easily  recognizable  by  its  white  bark  and  is  particularly  beautiful 
during  the  winter  because  of  contrasts  that  are  then  more 
apparent.  (The  bark  of  this  species  was  preferred  for  canoes 
because  of  its  pliability,  and  its  availability  in  large  pieces  where 
it  was  most  needed.  JThe  layers  of  other  barks,  as  Betula 
populifolia,  do  not  separate  so  easily  from  one  another,  nor  do 
they  divide  so  readily  from  the  trunk. 

The  yellow  and  sweet  birches  (Betula  lutea  and  Betula  lento) 
are  the  American  birches  most  prized  for  woods.  The  European 
birches  often  afford  the  cheapest  hard-woods  of  their  districts, 
and  these  woods  are  used  for  sabots,  plates,  spoons,  wheels, 
pegs,  buttons,  and  furniture.  The  Russians  reduce  birch  logs 
into  veneers,  that  are  then  glued  across  one  another  (see  page 
125  so  as  to  form  thin  planks ;  the  planks  are  used  for  tea  chests, 
chair  bottoms,  and  the  like.  Burls,  that  sometimes  occur  on 
trunks,  afford  figured  woods  that  are  turned  into  bowls,  cups,  or 
mallets.  Europeans  also  use  birch  indirectly,  as  in  tanning, 
smoking  meat,  etc.  The  bark  and  leaves  of  some  species  are 
widely  esteemed  as  domestic  remedies.  Oils  are  separated  by 
distillation.*  The  sweet  sap  drawn  from  some  of  the  birches  is 
nsed  as  a  beverage. 

Birch  trees  may  be  known  by  their  more  or  less  laminated 
bark  with  its  peculiar  long  horizontal  lenticles  or  dashes.  The 
leaves  of  the  several  birches  differ  but  little,  but  the  decided 
colors  exhibited  by  their  barks  give  names  and  serve  to  distin- 
guish the  species.  Nine  of  the  twenty-four  known  species  of 
birch  occur  in  North  America;  six  are  trees  and  the  others  low 
shrubs.  Betula  is  said  to  be  derived  from  bitumen. 

*  Wintergreen  oil  was  formerly  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  wintergreen, 
but  almost  all  "  natural  oil  "  is  now  obtained  from  the  sweet  birch  (Betula  lento). 
(Forestry  and  Irrigation,  December,  1905).  These  oils  and  their  manufactured 
products  consist  almost  entirely  of  Methyl  salicylate. 


7  6  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Birch.  Betula  populifolia  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Birch  (local  and  com-  Oldfield  Birch,  Poverty  Birch 

mon  name).  (Me.). 

Gray    Birch     (Me.,     R.     I.,  Poplar-leaved     Birch,     Small 

Mass.).  White  Birch  (Vt.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Delaware. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  rarely  one  foot  in  diameter. 
Durable,  laminated,  smooth,  white  bark  on  large  branches 
and  on  trunk,  save  near  ground;  is  not  very  easily  detached 
from  tree.  Tremulous  leaves. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  not  strong  or  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Clothes-pins,  shoe-pegs,  tooth-picks,  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,036,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,000. 
Remarks. 

The  white  bark  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  paper  birch  in  that 

it  does  not  cover  the  whole  trunk  and  in  that  it  remains  more 

perfectly  intact. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—BROADLEAF  WOODS.  77 

Paper  Birch,  White  Birch.     Betula  papyrifera  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Paper    Birch,     White     Birch  Boleau  (Quebec). 

(local  and  common  names).  Canoe  Birch  (Me.,Vt.,  N.  EL, 
Silver  Birch  (Minn.).  R.    I.,  Mass.,   N.  Y.,  Pa., 

Large  White  Birch  (Vt.).  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Northern  United  States,  northward  into  Canada,  valley  of  the 
Yukon  in  Alaska. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  two  and 
one-half  feet  in  diameter.  Smooth  white  exterior  bark  on 
large  limbs  and  trunks  away  from  ground.  Brown  or  orange 
inner  surfaces  of  bark.  Splits  freely  into  thin  paper-like 
layers. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Very  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  hard,  tough,  not  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Spools,  shoe-lasts,  pegs,  paper-pulp,  fuel,  bark  used  in  canoes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

37- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,850,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Starch  is  said  to  be  manufactured  from  inner  bark  by  Northern 
Indians.  Reaches  higher  latitude  than  any  American  decid- 
uous tree.  Forms  forests.  The  name  White  Birch  is  because 
of  the  color  of  the  bark.  Used  for  pill  boxes.  One  of  the 
few  woods  that  burn  well  while  green. 


7g  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Red  Birch.  Betula  nigra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Birch  (local  and  common  Ala.,     Miss.,     Tex.,    Mo., 

name).  111.,  Wis.,  Ohio). 

Black    Birch    (Fla.,     Tenn.,  Birch   (N.   C.,    S.    C.,  Miss., 

Tex.).  La.). 

River   Birch    (Mass.,    R.    I.,  Water  Birch  (W.  Va.,  Kans.). 

N.  J.,  Del.,   Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Blue  Birch  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 
and  Texas.  Best  development  in  south  Atlantic  and  lower 
Mississippi  valley  regions. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  eigthy  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  larger.  Dark  red  brown  scaly  bark  on  trunk. 
Red  to  silvery-white  bark  on  branches.  Bark  separates  in 
thin  paper-like  scales  curling  outward. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  yellowish  white.  Close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  rather  hard  and  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  woodenware,  shoe-lasts,  ox-yokes,  inferior  cask- 
hoops  from  branches. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,100. 
Remarks. 

Dark  brown  bark,  whence  name  Red  Birch.  Prefers  moist 
bottoms,  whence  name  River  Birch. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS. 


79 


Yellow  Birch.  Betula  lutea  Michx.  f. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Yellow  Birch  (local  and  com-  Swamp  Birch  (Minn.). 

mon  name).  Silver  Birch  (N.  H.). 

Gray  Birch   (Vt.,  R.   I.,  Pa.,  Merisier,       Merisier      Rouge 

Mich.,  Minn.).  (Quebec). 

American  Mahogany. 

Locality. 

Newfoundland  to  North  Carolina,  westward  intermittently  to 
Minneosta  and  Texas.  Best  developed  north  of  the  Great 
Lakes. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  A  medium-sized  tree.  Bark  on  trunk  silvery  gray 
to  silvery  yellow,  branches  green  to  lustrous  or  dull  brown. 
Bark  exfoliates,  causing  a  rough,  ragged  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure,  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  strong,  and  hard,  tough,  susceptible  of  high  polish. 
Qualities  suggest  those  of  maple.  Not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  buttons,  tassel-moulds,  pill-boxes,  spools,  and 
wheel-hubs.  Chair  seats. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

40. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,290,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,700. 

Remarks. 

Occasional  trees  have  thin  outer  bark  ruptured,  and  exhibit 
inner  bark  of  almost  metallic  yellow.  Lutea,  signifying 
yellow,  alludes  to  color  of  bark.  Inner  bark  has  pungent, 
pleasant  flavor.  Burls,  as  frequently  found,  are  valued  for 
making  mallets. 


8o  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Sweet  Birch,  Cherry  Birch.     Betula  lenta  Linn. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth. ) 

Sweet    Birch,    Cherry    Birch         Mahogany     Birch     (N.     C., 

(many  localities).  S.  C.). 

Black    Birch    (N.    H.,     Vt.,          River  Birch  (Minn.). 

Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,          Mountain  Mahogany  (S.  C). 

N.  J.,   Pa.,   W.   Va.,  Ga., 

111.,  Ind.,  Mich.,  Ohio). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland  intermittently  to  Illinois,  southward  intermit- 
tently along  Alleghanies  to  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Florida. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  dark 
reddish-brown  bark,  resembling  that  of  cherry;  does  not 
separate  into  layers  as  paper-birch.  Leaves,  bark,  and  twigs 
sweet,  spicy,  and  aromatic. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  light  brown 
or  yellow,  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  strong,  hard,  receives  stains  and  high  satin-like 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  furniture,  ship-building  (Canada),  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

47- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,010,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,000. 
Remarks. 

A  common  tree  in  Northern  States.  Wood  often  stained  so  as 
to  resemble  cherry  and  mahogany.  Essences  suggest  winter- 
green,  contain  much  salicylic  acid,  and  are  used  in  medicine. 
The  name  "  cherry  "  is  because  bark  resembles  that  of  cherry. 
"  Sweet  "  is  because  of  essences. 


PLATE  15 


LOCUST  (Robinia,  Gleditsia). 


Black  Locust  Tree  and  B.irk  (Robinia  psfuttaeacia.) 

Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  Iriacanlhof). 
Locust  Wood. 


LOCUST,  MESQUITE. 

(Robinia,  Gleditsia,  Prosopis.) 

The  name  Locust  applies  to  species  of  three  distinct 
genera,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  family  Leguminosae.  The 
black  locust  (Robinia'pseudacacia),  the  honey  locust  (Gleditsia 
triacanthos},  and  the  Mesquite  or  honey  locust  (Prosopis  juli- 
flora)  are  principal  representatives  of  their  respective  kinds. 
The  first-named  genus  is  North  American,  the  other  two  have 
species  on  both  continents. 

v  Black  locust  wood  is  tough,  dur- 
able, unequalled  for  torsional  strength 
and  resilience,  and  is  in  every  way  in 
the  first  rank  of  American  woods.  It 
is  fitted  not  only  for  exposed  con- 
structions, but  for  finer  articles ;  hubs, 
pins,  bolts,  and  trenails  having  no 
superiors.  )  Trees  develop  rapidly 
when  young,  heart  wood  forming  as 
early  as  the  third  year.  Later  growth 
and  ultimate  commercial  value  in  the 
United  States  are  much  affected  by 
insect  borers,  which  practically  limit 
the  usefulness  of  the  species.  The 
black  locust  may  be  known  by  its 
clusters  of  large  pea-blossom-shaped 
flowers,  its  bean-shaped  pods,  three 
to  six  inches  in  length,  and  by  the  BLACK 
prickles  on  the  bark.  The  genus  has 
six  species,  four  of  which  are  natives  of  the  United  States.* 
Robinia  is  from  Robin,  the  name  of  an  early  French  botanist. 

*  Three  of  the  four  United  States  species  are  trees  ;  the  other  species  of  this 
genus  grow  in  Mexico.  No  one  is  approximately  as  important  or  well  known  as 
the  Black  Locust. 

81 


seud- 


82  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

The  black  locust  has  been  extensively  introduced  into  Europe, 
both  for  ornamentation  and  for  wood.* 

/  The  wood  of  the  honey  locust  resembles  that  of  the  black 
locust,  but  is  seldom  used  or  appreciated  save  for  fencing  and 
similarly  unimportant  purposes.'  Trees  grow  rapidly  and  are 
not  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  so  that  they  frequently 
attain  to  normal  proportions.  The  flowers  are  much  smaller 
than  those  of  the  black  locust,  but  the  pods  are  several  times 
as  long  (twelve  to  eighteen  inches).  These  often  curl  in 
drying  and  are  thus  rolled  to  some  distance  by  the  wind. 
Thorns  or  spines  are  present  on  some  individuals  and  are  often 
from  three  to  six  inches  in  length.  The  foliage  resembles  but 
is  more  delicate  than  that  of  the  black  locust.  There  i? 
at  least  one  other  American  species.  Gleditsia  is  from 
Gleditsch,  the  name  of  a  botanist. 

I  The  mesquite  is  to  its  native  desert  as  bamboo  is  to 
China  and  Japan.  Its  normal  form  resembles  that  of  the 
apple-tree,  but  it  can  survive  entirely  covered  with  sand,  so  that 
above  the  surface,  only  small  shoots  appear.  Such  instances 
suggested  the  expression  that  in  Arizona  we  must  "  dig  for 
wood  and  climb  for  water."  j  Roots  develop  greatly  in  their 
search  for  water,  and  are  dug  up  in  the  absence  of  other  fuel. 
There  are  pods  filled  with  rich  pulp,  from  which  Indians  made 
bread,  cake,  and  a  fermented  drink.  The  beans  are  now 
greatly  valued  as  fodder.  A  black  dye  is  made  from  the  sap, 
and  a  good  mucilage  from  the  gum.  vThe  hard,  heavy  wood 
is  seen  in  many  native  houses  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona; 
and  is  almost  indestructible  when  exposed ]\  Sixteen  or  more 
species  belong  to  this  genus,  Prosopis,  of  which  one  other, 
the  screw-pod  mesquite  (Prosopis  odoratd),  is  found  in  the 
United  States. 

*  Black  locust  was  introduced  into  Europe  early  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
being  first  cultivated  by  the  son  of  Jean  Robin,  for  whom  the  genus  is  named. 
Few  American  species  have  received  such  attention  aboad. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  83 

Locust,  Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust.     Robinia  pseudacacia  Linn. 
Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Locust,    Black    Locust,    Yel-  Red    Locust,    Green    Locust 

low      Locust     (local     and  (Tenn.). 

common  names).  Honey  Locust  (Minn.). 

FalseAcacia  (S.  C.,  Ala., Tex.,  White  Locust  (R.  I.,  N.   Y., 

Minn.).  Tenn.). 

Pea-flower    Locust,   Post  Lo-  Acacia  (La.), 
cust  (Md.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Alleghany  region,  widely  cultivated  in  United  States 
east  of  Rocky  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  or  over  in 
diameter.  Leaves  curl  or  close  at  night.  Long  spikes  or 
briers  on  young  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  thin  sapwood,  light-greenish  yellow. 
Close-grained  and  compact.  Annual  layers  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  and  durable  under  extreme  conditions 
of  wet  and  dry. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Long  wooden  bolts  or  pins  called  treenails.  Posts,  ties,  con- 
struction, turnery,  ship-ribs,  ornamentations,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,830,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

I  8,  TOO. 

Remarks. 

Often  a  low  shrub.  Extensively  planted,  particularly  in  West, 
but  subject  to  attack  by  borers.  One  of  the  most  valuable 
of  American  timber  trees.  Heartwood  is  formed  very  early 
in  this  species.  Pseudacacia  means  false  acacia  or  imitation 
of  acacia. 


g4  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Honey  Locust.  Gleditsia  triacanthos  Linn. 

Nomenclature.  •    (Sudworth. ) 

Honey  Locust  (local  and  com-  Honey  or  Honeyshucks  (R.I., 

mon  name).  N.  J.,  Va.,  Fla.,  Iowa). 

Thorn  or  Thorny  Locust  Tree  Honeyshucks  Locust  (Ky.). 

or   Acacia    (N.  Y.,   N.  J.,  Sweet    Locust    (S.    C,    La., 

Ind.,  Tenn.,  La.).  Kans.,  Nebr.). 

Three-thorned  Acacia  (Mass.,  Piquant  Amourette  (La.). 

R.    I.,    La.,    Tex.,     Neb.,  Confederate  Pintree  (Fla.). 

Mich.).  Locust  (Nebr.). 
Black   Locust    (Miss.,    Tex., 

Ark.,  Kans.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Best  in  lower  Ohio  River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Frequent  long  thorns.*  Light  thin  foliage. 
Brown  pods  contain  sweet  pulp. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  bright  brown  or  red,  sapwood  yellowish,  annual 
layers  strongly  marked,  coarse-grained,  medullary  rays  con- 
spicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fence-posts,  rails,  wagon-hubs,  rough  construction,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

42. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,540,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,100. 

Remarks. 

Widely  cultivated  for  landscape  effect.  Young  trees- used  for 
forming  hedges.  One  of  the  hardiest  trees  for  planting  on  the 
uplands  of  Western  Kansas.  ("  Forestry  and  Irrigation," 
August,  1903.) 

*  Thorns  plentiful  on  some  individuals,  but  absent  on  others. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES- BROADLEAF  WOODS.  85 

Mesquite.  Prosopis  juliflora  (Swartz)  de  C. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Mesquite  (Tex.,  N.  M.,  Ariz.,          Honey  Pod  or  Honey  Locust 

Cal.).  (Tex.,  N.  M.). 

Algaroba  (Tex.,  N.  M.,  Ariz.,          Ironwood  (Tex.). 
Cal.). 

Locality. 

Texas,  west  to  San  Bernardino  Mountains,  California.  Also 
Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada  and  northern  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  Some- 
times low  shrub.  Roots  often  very  large.  Pods  with  sweet 
pulp.  Gums  resemble  gum  arabic. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  dark  brown,  often  •  red.  Sap  wood  clear 
yellow.  Close-grained,  compact  structure,  distinct  medullary 
rays.  The  heart  resembles  walnut. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Weak,  difficult  to  work,  heavy,  hard,  very  durable,  receives 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  fencing,  ties,  house-beams,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

47- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6800. 

Remarks. 

A  locally  important  tree.  Trees  sometimes  stunted  by  fires 
have  numerous  roots.  Large  roots  used  for  fuel.  The  easily 
agitated  foliage  cools  the  air  to  a  surprising  degree.  The 
"  cool  shade  of  the  mesquite  "  is  a  characteristic  phrase.  Large 
roots  must  not  be  confounded  with  trunks  that  are  also  often 
covered  with  sand.  Trees  stunted  by  fires  sometimes  have  very 
large  sub-surface  developments.  Such  roots  are  often  dug  up 
and  used  for  fuel.  The  mesquite  has  been  acclimated  in  Hawaii. 

Holsinger,  "  Forestry  and  Irrigation."     Vol.  VIII,  No.  u,  p.  447. 


WHITEWOOD    OR    TULIP-TREE  WOOD,   POPLAR    OR    COTTONWOOD, 

(Liriodendron.)  (Populus.) 

CUCUMBER-TREE  WOOD,  BASSWOOD. 

(Magnolia.}  (Tilia.) 

These  trees  are  not  related,  but  are  all  noted  for  woods 
with  soft,  fine  qualities,  such  as  fit  them  for  carvings,  wooden- 
ware,  and  paper-pulp.  No  one  of  the  woods  is  durable  when 
exposed,  and  all  are  used  for  boxes  because  they  nail  without 
splitting.  JThe  names  are  commercially  interchangeable. 

The  whitewood  or  tulip  tree  (Liriodendron  tnlipifcrd]  is  a 
native  of  America  and  an  acclimated  tree  in  Europe.  It  is  the 
sole  surviving  species  of  its  genus.  The  wood  is  soft,  stiff, 

j^--.  .^- n  clean,  fine,   straight-grained,  and 

obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces. 
Much  whitewood  is  made  into 
lumber,  the  wood  standing  among 
those  of  the  broadleaf  series  as 
white  pine  does  among  the  coni- 
fers. VWhitewood  is  particularly 
suitable  for  carvings.)  In  spite 
of  its  name  it  is  largely  greenish 

WHITEWOOD  (LirioJenJron  yellow.       It  is  often    divided  COm- 

tuiipifera).  mercially,  according  to  color,  into 

"  white  poplar  "  and  "yellow  poplar."  Trunks  often  attain 
to  a  very  large  size.  Matthews  mentions  a  specimen  *  thirty- 
three  feet  in  circumference.  The  species  may  be  known  by  its 
large  tulip-shaped  flower.  Liriodendron  is  from  two  Greek 
words  meaning  lily  and  tree. 

The  poplars,  sometimes  called  cottonwoods  because  of 
their  seeds  covered  with  a  cotton-like  down,  are  represented 
on  both  continents.  The  wood  was  made  into  shields  by  the 

*.F.  Schuyler  Matthews,  "Familiar  Trees  "  (Appleton,  1901),  p.  39. 

86 


PLATE  16.  WHITEWOOD  OR  TULIP  TREE  (L 


(iriodenaron  tuhpifera}. 


J 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  87 

ancients,  because  it  was  light  and  tough  and  would  indent 
without  breaking.  The  wood  is  often  substituted  for  white- 
wood,  but  is  less  desirable,  although  valuable  as  a  basis  for 
paper-pulp.  The  trees  may  be  known  by  the  long  drooping 
catkins  that  appear  early  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves,  and 
that  are  followed  by  white  downy  seeds  that  soon  escape  to 
whiten  the  surrounding  ground.  The  poplars  are  noted  for 
foliage  more  or  less  constantly  in  agitation.  This  peculiarity, 
so  pronounced  in  the  aspen  (Populus  tremuloides),  is  due  to 
the  very  long  petioles  or  leaf-stems.  The  cottonwoods  abound 
in  many  otherwise  arid  regions  of  American  Western  deserts. 
The  balsam  poplar  (Populus  balsamifera)  which  thrives  far  into 
the  North,  was  said,  by  Sir  John  Franklin,  to  form  much  of  the 
drift  seen  by  him  upon  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  bal- 
sam poplar  must  not  be  confused  with  the  true  balsam,  Abies 
balsamea  (pp.  162-163),  although  both  are  called  Balm  of 
Gilead.  Sudworth  enumerates  twelve  distinct  species  of  the 
genus  Populus  that  grow  in  the  United  States. 

The  cucumber  trees  are  of  the  magnolia  family  and  grow 
in  many  of  the  Eastern  States.  The  wood  resembles  and  is 
probably  often  mistaken  for  whitewood,  for  which  it  is  a  fair 
substitute.  The  trees  may  be  known  by  their  fruit,  which 
resembles  vegetable  cucumbers.  Magnolia  is  from  Magnol,  a 
botanist  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Basswood  is  a  name  applied  to  trees  known  in  Europe  and 
America  as  limes,  lime  trees,  lind,  linden,  tiel,  tiel  trees, 
bass,  and  basswood  trees.  The  trees  and  their  wood  were 
early  esteemed,  the  first  for  their  shade  and  appearance,  and 
the  last  for  their  working  qualities,  which  resemble,  but  are 
inferior  to,  whitewood.*  The  trees  are  characterized  by  their 
dense  foliage  and  clusters  of  small  cream-colored  fragrant 
flowers,  so  attractive  to  bees  as  to  have  originated  the  further 
name  bee-tree.  Tilia  arises  from  the  ancient  name  for  these 
trees. 

*  The  carvings  of  Gibbons,  a  famous  English  artist,  are  said  to  have  been  made 
entirely  of  linden,  no  other  available  wood  being  so  even-grained  and  free  from 
knots. 


88  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Tulip  Tree,  Whitewood,  Yellow  Poplar.   Liriodendron  tulipifera  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Tulip  Tree,  Whitewood,  Yel-  Hickory  Poplar  (Va.,  W.  Va., 

low  Poplar  (local  and  com-  N.  C. ). 

mon  names).  Blue  Poplar  (Del.,  W.  Va.). 

Poplar  (R.    I.,   Del.,   N.  C,  Popple  (R.  I.). 

S.  C,  Fla.,  Ohio).  Cucumber  Tree  (N.  Y.). 

Tulip  Poplar  (Del. ,  Pa. ,  S.  C. ,  Canoewood  (Tenn. ). 

111.). 

Locality. 

New  England  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan 
and  Mississippi. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  six  to  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  Tulip-shaped  flowers  in  spring.  Greenish 
cones  dry  and  remain  after  leaves  have  fallen. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow  or  greenish  brown,  thin  sapwood, 
nearly  white.  Close,  straight-grained,  compact  structure,  free 
from  knots. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  moderately  strong,  brittle,  easily  worked,  durable. 
Hard  to  split,  shrinks  little,  resembles  white  pine,  stands  well. 

x.  Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  interior  finish,  shingles,  boat-building,  pumps,  wooden- 
ware,  shelves,  the  bottoms  of  drawers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9300. 
Remarks. 

Very  large  trees  formerly  common.  Indians  hollowed  logs  into 
boats.  "Some  large  enough  to  carry  twenty  or  thirty 
persons"  (Hough),  whence  name  canoewood.  Tulipifera, 
signifying  turbans  and  to  bear,  refers  to  flowers.  One  of  the 
largest  as  well  as  most  useful  of  American  deciduous  trees. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  89 

Poplar,  Largetooth  Aspen.     Populus  grandidentata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Poplar,      Largetooth      Aspen         White  Poplar  (Mass.). 

(local  and  common  names).         Popple  (Me.). 
Largetooth  Poplar  (N.  C. ).  Large  American  Aspen  (Ala. ). 

Large  Poplar  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  and  Delaware,  westward  intermittently  to  Minne- 
sota, Alleghany  Mountains  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  two  feet  or  more  in  diameter.  Irreg- 
ular points  or  teeth  on  margins  of  leaves.  Smooth  gray  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sap  wood  nearly  white,  close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Soft,  light,  weak. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Paper-pulp  and  occasionally  woodenware. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

The  several  "  poplars  "  are  much  prized  for  paper-pulp.  The 
quaking  aspen  (P.  tremuloides)  has  long  leaf-stalks  flattened 
vertically  to  the  leaf-surface,  so  that  leaves  tremble  in  slight 
winds,  a  characteristic  peculiar  throughout  of  the  genus 
Populus. 


Ailanthus  (Ailanthus  glandulosa).  This  sturdy,  beautiful,  very  quick- 
growing,  but  short-lived  tree  was  once  popular  in  this  country,  particularly  in 
city  landscapes,  but  it  was  discarded  because  of  the  disagreeable,  far  reaching 
odor  of  its  flowers.  The  tree  has  many  merits  and  an  odorless  variety  is 
fortunately  available.  The  wood  is  used  for  wooden  ware  and  charcoal  in  Europe 
and  in  China  where  certain  silk  worms  feed  upon  the  leaves.  The  Chinese  call 
the  Ailanthus  the  "tree  of  Heaven."  American  specimens  have  grown  in  excess 
of  ten  feet  in  length  during  the  first  year.  _, 


go  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Pobulus  del  to  ides  Marsh. 
Cottonwood.  |  Populus  momli/era  A  it. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Cottonwood  (local  and  com-  Big  Cottonwood  (Miss.,  Neb.). 

mon  name).  Whitewood  (la.). 

Carolina   Poplar '(Pa.,   Miss.,  Cotton  Tree  (N.  Y.). 

La.,  N.  M.,  Ind.,  Ohio).  Necklace  Poplar  (Tex.,  Col.). 

Yellow    Cottonwood     (Ark.,  Broadleaved          Cottonwood 

la.,  Neb.).  (Colo.). 

Locality. 

Canada  to"  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  four  to  five  feet  in 
diameter,  occasionally  much  larger.  Long  catkins  distribute 
cotton-like  fibres. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood,  dark  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  weak,  liable  to  warp,  difficult  to  season. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Greatly  valued  in  manufacture  of  paper-pulp,  also  packing- 
boxes,  fence-boards,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

24. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,400,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,900. 
Remarks. 

Monilifera  is  from  the  Latin  monolinum,  a  necklace,  and  fero, 
to  bear,  and  refers  to  the  long  necklace  or  catkin. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  91 

XXBlack  Cotton  wood.     Populus  trichocarpa  Torr.  and  Gr. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black     Cottonwood     (Oreg.,          Cottonwood  (Oreg,,  Cal.). 

Cal.).  Balm  Cottonwood  (Cal.). 

Balsam     Cottonwood,     Balm 

(Oreg.). 
Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Alaska  to  California. 
Features  of  Tree. 

A  large  tree  sometimes  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height  and 
four  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  dull  brown,   sapwood  nearly  white,   compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  weak. 

X Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Staves,  woodenware  (local). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Largest  deciduous  tree  of  Puget  Sound  district  (Sargent). 

The  Cottonwood,  Tacmahac,  Balsam,  Balsampoplar,  or  Balm  of 
Gilead  (Populus  balsamiferd)  grows  from  Hudson  Bay  and  Alaska 
south  to  Oregon  and  New  England.  It  is  a  large  upright  tree,  some- 
times five  or  more  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  distinctly  a  northern  species. 
It  has  whitish  trunk,  drooping  catkins  and  other  poplar  characteristics. 
The  very  light,  soft,  white  wood  has  been  used  in  paper  making. 
The  gummy  exudations  on  the  twigs  of  this  and  related  species  have 
been  substituted  for  other  medicinal  balsams.  The  Balm  of  Gilead 
(Populus  balsamifera  candicans)  is  cultivated  in  New  England. 

Professor  Bessey  believes  that  cottonwood  timber  culture  would  be  remunera- 
tive in  many  parts  of  the  middle  west  even  for  fuel.  Cottonwoods  have  attained 
to  sizes  large  enough  for  saw  logs  in  twenty  years.  (Pinchot,  U.  S.  Forestry 
Circular  No.  27). 


92  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cucumber  Tree.  Magnolia  acuminala  Linn. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Cucumber  Tree  (R.  I.,  Mass.,     Mountain  Magnolia  (Miss.,  Ky.). 
N.   Y.,  Pa.,   N.  C.,   S.   C.,     Black  Lin,  Cucumber  (W.  Va.). 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Ky.,     Magnolia  (Ark.). 
W.  Va.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.). 

Locality. 

New  York  to  Illinois,  southward  through  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee to  Gulf  (intermittently). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  occasionally  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  four 
feet  in  diameter.'  A  large,  handsome,  symmetrical  tree,  with 
cones  resembling  cucumbers. 

N    Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish  yellow,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure.  Satiny,  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable.  Qualities  similar  to  white- 
wood. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  cheap  furniture,  flooring,  pump-logs,  troughs, 
crates,  packing-boxes.  Used  similarly  to  L.  tulipifera. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,310,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9500. 
Remarks. 

Wood  resembles  and  is  often  sold  for  tulip-tree  wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  93 

Basswood,  Linn,  Linden.     Tilia  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Basswood,       Linn,      Linden,  Whitewood  (Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Ark., 

American     Linden     (local  Minn.). 

and  common  names).  Yellow  Basswood,  Lein  (Ind.). 

Limetree  (R.  I.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Beetree  (Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Wis.). 

Ala.,  Minn.,. La.,  111.).  White  Lind  (W.  Va.). 

Black  or  Smooth-leaved  Lime-  Wickup  (Mass.). 

tree  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
occasionally  larger.  Large  smooth  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  or  reddish  brown,  thick  sapwood  nearly 
similar,  very  straight  and  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  easily  worked,  tough,  not  strong  nor  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Sides  and  backs  of  drawers,  bodies  of  carriages,  woodenware, 
paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  jn  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  190,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8300. 

Remarks. 

Basswood  refers  to  the  inner  bark  or  "  bast, "  sometimes  utilized 
for  cordage.  The  flowers  attract  bees,  whence  the  name  bee- 
tree.  White  Basswood,  (Tilia  heterophylla,}  is  not  distinguished 
commercially. 


WILLOW. 

(Salix.) 

The  willows  are  distributed  over  both  continents.  The 
ancients  used  willow  wood  for  shields,  because  it  would  indent 
without  breaking.  Pliny  writes  that  Brittons  made  voyages  in 
boats  of  willow.  (The  principal  experience  with  the  tough,  light, 
workable,  elastic  wood  has  been  in  Europe,. where  it  has  been 
us,ed  for  lapboards,  cricket  bats,  keels,  paddles,  and  water 
wheels.  It  resists  splintering,  heating  and  friction,  and  has  been 
used  for  lining  friction  brakes  and  wagons.  The  charcoal  ignites 
readily  and  is  esteemed  for  finer  kinds  of  gun-powder.] 

In  America,  willows  are  associated  with  the  qualities  of 
pliability  and  water  endurance.  Trees  and  saplings,  rather  than 
lumber,  figure  in  American  constructions.  Trees  are  planted  to 
protect  and  sometimes  by  eddies  to  recover  land  from  water 
encroachment.  (Saplings  up  to  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter 
are  made  into  matresses  to  prevent  scour  in  Mississippi  River 
improvement  work.  Some  of  these  mattresses  are  three  hundred 
feet  wide  and  one  thousand  feet  long.*  Willow  rods,  whole  or 
split,  are  used  in  basket  making. )  Sap-peeled  rods  retain  their 
white  color,  while  steamed  willows  turn  yellow. t  Saplings  are 
often  known  as  osiers,  and  the  term  osier  willow  is  often  applied 
to  any  species  that  afford  strong,  slender  shoots.  The  true  osier, 
sandbar  or  longleaf  willow  (Salix  fluviatilis)  is  widely  distributed 
from  the  Arctic  Circle  southward  into  Mexico.  Osiers  are 
regularly  cultivated  in  Europe.  J  Wilows  grow  very  rapidly  and 
have  a  characteristic  and  attractive  appearance.  The  White, 
Crack,  Bedford,  and  Goat  Willows  (Salix  alba,  S.  fragilis,  S. 
russeliana,  and  S.  caprea)  are  said  to  afford  good  woods. 

*  Starling  &  Coppee,  Papers  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Correspondence  Mr. 
Chas.  Hunter  West,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E  ,  Chf.  Eng'r.,  Miss,  Levee  Dist., 
Greenville,  Miss. 

t  Correspondence,  Chas.  Zinn  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

J  The  Basket  Willow,  U.  S.  For.  Bui.  No.  46. 


About  140  species  and  varieties  of  the  wilbw  family  have  been  enumerated. 

94 


PLATE  17.     WILLOW  (Salix). 


Black  willow  foliage  (Salix  nigra). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES- BRO  A  OLE AF  WOODS.  95 

Black  Willow.  Salix  nigra  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Willow  (local  and  com-  Willow   (N.  Y.,    Pa.,   N.  C., 

mon  name).  S.   C.,    Miss.,    Tex.,    Cal., 

Swamp  Willow  (N.  C.,  S.  C.).  Ky.,  Mo.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota, 
Arizona,  and  California,  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Long 
narrow  leaf,  characteristic  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  weak,  checks  badly  in  drying,  readily  worked. 
Dents  without  splitting. 

/\    Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lap-boards,  basket-making,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6000. 

Remarks. 

Prefers  borders  of  rivers  and  bottom  lands.  Many  varieties  of 
willow  grow  in  the  United  States.  No  one  is  used  to  any 
extent  in  construction.  There  are  so  many  hybrids  and  peculiar 
species  of  willow  that  classification  is  often  difficult  (about  one 
hundred  and  forty  species  and  varieties  of  the  willow  family 
have  been  enumerated).  Salix  is  said  to  be  from  the  Celtic 
Sal,  meaning  "  near,"  and  Z/*s,  meaning  "  water."  Salicylic 
acid  is  present  in  the  bark  of  some  species. 


White  Willow  (Salix  alba),  naturalized  in  America,  is  very  hardy 
even  in  dry  places.  A  valuable  prairie  wind-brake.  Trees  planted 
several  feet  apart  from  good  posts  to  support  barbed  wire.  European 
uses  of  the  wood  have  been  referred  to.  Salix  alba  has  many 
botanical  varieties. 


CATALPA. 

(Catalpa.) 

Many  kinds  of  wood  that  were  formerly  plentiful  are  now 
much  less  so.  Attention  is  being  turned  to  trees  that  give 
best  results  under  artificial  conditions.  Catalpa,  formerly  but 
little  known,  now  bids  fair  to  become  of  some  importance  in 
this  connection.  The  tree  is  one  of  which  excellent  results  can 
be  expected  when  the  right  conditions  prevail.  The  Hardy 
Catalpa  (Catalpa  speciosa)  is  most  desirable. 

Catalpa  trees  grow  readily  and  are  often  used  in  land- 
scape effects.  The  trees  may  be  planted  along  streams,  since 
they  are  not  seriously  injured  by  occasional  inundations. 
The  soft,  weak,  brittle,  smooth  wood  works  w<*ll,  and  is  fitted 
for  many  constructions.  It  is  very  durable  and  attractive. 
Catalpa  wood  can  be  used  in  indoor  finish.  Trees  are 
being  planted  by  railways,  although  some  question  exists 
as  to  whether  ties  will  stand  sufficiently  under  heavy  traffic. 
Mr.  John  Brown*  mentions  specimens  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter  seventeen  years  after  planting.  Numerous  examples 
could  be  given  of  an  awakened  interest  in  this  species.  The 
soft  wood  may  require  plates  to  resist  cutting  when  in  ties 
under  heavy  traffic,  but  no  uncertainty  exists  as  to  durability. 
Sufficient  tests  have  placed  it  in  the  front  rank  as  resisting 
decay.  Prof,  von  Schrenk  states  that  final  disintegration  of 
weathered  wood  will  not  be  due  to  the  usual  fungus  causes, 
since  no  single  fungus  has  yet  been  found  to  grow  in  the  dead 
timber.  The  limited  supply  has  restricted  use.  No  wood  is 
better  for  posts  and  poles. 

*  The  Forester,  October,  1900,  and  November,  1902. 
Kansas  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  108. 
Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  Ill,  N.  Y. 


PLATE   18.     CATALPA  (Catatpa). 


Young  Catalpa  Tree  (Catalpa  catalpd), 
Delaware  County,  New  York. 


Catalpa  Tree  (Catalpa  spedosa\ 
Wilsey,  Kansas. 


Catalpa  Wood  (Catalpa  spedosa).     Specimen  prepared  by  Mr.  Geo.  W.  Tincher,  Wilsey, 

Kansas. 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  97 

Catalpa,  Hardy  Catalpa.     Catalpa  speciosa  Warder. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Catalpa  (R.  I  NY.,  La.,  Western  Catalpa  (Pa.,  Ohio, 
111.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Wis.,  la.,  Kans.,  Neb.,  Ill  ) 

Neb.,  Minn.).  Cigar  Tree  (Mo.,  la  ) 

Hardy  Catalpa  (111.,  la.,  Kan.,  Indian  Bean,  Shawneewood 
Mich.).  (Ind.). 

Bois  Puant  (La.). 
Locality. 

Central  Mississippi  valley,  naturalized  in  many  localities. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  sixty  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter;  well -formed  trunks.  Large,  white,  faintly  mottled 
flower,  long  pod  or  bean. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  brown,  thin  sapwood  lighter,  nearly  white, 
coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  clearly 
marked.  An  attractive  wood. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,  fence-posts,  rails,  adapted  for  cabinet-work  and 
interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity, 
i,  160,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
9000. 

Remarks. 

Hardier  and  better  formed  trunks  than  afforded  by  C.  catalpa. 
A  rapid  grower;  sprouts  vigorously  from  stumps.  A  valuable 
tree,  promising  to  become  better  known.  Foliage  subject  to 
attack  by  insects. 

"  Hardy  Catalpa."     Hall  and  von  Sthrenk.     United  States  Forestry  Bureau, 
Bulletin  No.  37. 


Paulownia  (Paulownia  tomentosd).  This  tree  is  of  small  importance.  A 
native  of  Asia,  it  is  now  cultivated  in  central  Atlantic  and  Southern  State  land- 
scapes. It  has  catalpa-like  leaves  preceded  by  large  pale  blue  or  violet  flowers. 
The  persistent,  woody,  capsule-like  fruit  suggest  hickory  nuts.  The  species  is  not 
related  to  but  is  sometimes  confused  with  catalpa. 


;T4A'°^'-^0f 

?rs  MD  /v  - 

8-'.ftfiA  / 


98  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

(  Catalpa  catalpa  (Linn.)  Karst. 
Catalpa.  \Catalpabignonioides  Wall. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Catalpa    (local   and   common  Indian  Bean  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y., 

name).  N.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  111.). 

Indian  Cigar  Tree  (Pa.).  Catawba,   Catawba  Tree  (Del., 

Smoking  Bean  (R.  I.).  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Kans.). 

Cigar  Tree  (R.  I. ,  N.  J. ,  Pa. ,  Bean  Tree  (N.  J. ,  Del. ,  Pa.,  Va., 

W.    Va.,    Mo.,    111.,    Wis.,  La.,  Neb.). 

la.). 

Locality. 

Naturalized  in  many  localities  east  of  Rocky  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  or  more  feet  in 
diameter.  Trunks  not  well  formed.  A  low,  wide  tree,  large 
heart-shaped  leaves,  characteristic  flower.  Long  slender  pod 
or  bean. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  is  light  pink  brown;  thin  sapwood  is  nearly 
white.  Coarse-grained,  compact. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Fence-posts,  railway  ties,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8300. 
Remarks. 

Grows  rapidly.  Pods  remain  on  tree  after  leaves  fall.  Some- 
times used  as  cigars  by  children.  Wood  is  less  desirable  than 
C.  speciosa. 


PLATE  19.     SASSAFRAS  (Sassajras  officinal*}. 


SASSAFRAS.     MULBERRY. 

(Sassafras.)       (Morus.) 

The  sassafras  was  one  of  the  first  American  trees  to  be 
described  in  Europe,  where  many  fictitious  properties  were 
early  credited  to  its  aromatic  essences.  The  wood  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  unusual  qualities,  but  trees  are  cut  for  lumber  as 
encountered  with  other  and  more  valuable  species  in  the  forest. 
The  mucilaginous  leaves  are  of  three  separate  shapes.  Some 
have  lobes  on  both  sides  of  the  central  surface,  others  have 
one  lobe  at  one  side  so  as  to  resemble  mittens,  while  yet 
others  on  the  same  branch  have  simple  oval  shapes.  The 
dark-blue  berries  on  bright-red  stems  are  so  eagerly  devoured 
by  birds  as  to  be  seldom  seen.  The  characteristic  flavor  is 
most  pronounced  in  the  bark  of  the  root. 

The  Red,  White,  and  Black  Mulberries  are  named  from 
the  color  of  their  fruits.  The  former,  which  is  the  American 
species,  has  wood  resembling  that  of  the  sassafras,  only  in  that 
it  is  not  distinguished  by  unusual  qualities.  Its  leaves,  like 
that  of  the  sassafras,  are  of  several  shapes  on  the  same  tree. 
The  very  sweet  fruit  resembles  blackberries  in  form.  (The 
leaves  used  in  silkworm-culture  are  from  the  Russian  mulberry, 
a  cross  between  the  white  mulberry  and  black  mulberry  (M. 
alba  and  M.  nigra).  j 

The  camphor  tree  (Cinnamomum  camphora)  is  related  to  the  sassafras.  It 
has  been  acclimated  in  California  and  from  Charleston  to  Florida  on  the  Atlantic. 
In  Asia,  where  the  tree  is  native,  it  is  the  chief  source  of  commercial  camphor, 
but  in  this  country  and  in  some  others,  trees,  while  thrifty,  do  not  appear  to  secrete 
the  same  quantities  of  camphor.  The  camphor  tree  is  principally  valued  in  the 
United  States  for  its  appearance.  The  beautiful  trees  with  their  shining,  ever- 
green leaves  are  good  to  plant  along  sidewalks.  The  close-grained,  aromatic, 
yellowish  wood  is  used  in  cabinet  work  and  insect-proof  chests.  The  leaves  have 
the  odor  of  camphor  which  is  however  more  widely  diffused  through  the  wood. 
Twenty  to  fifty  pounds  of  wood  yield  one  pound  of  gum.  The  roots  of  the 
Cinnamon  tree  (Cinnamomum  zeylanicum)  contain  camphor  (India  and  Ceylon); 
this  is  in  addition  to  the  uses  of  the  bark  as  spice.  The  Cassia  bark  (Cinnamo- 
mum cassia)  affords  cassia  (Burmah  and  China)  but  no  camphor.  These  last 
two  trees  are  sometimes  seen  in  California,  Florida  and  other  Gulf  States. 
Also  see  Dewey,  U.  S.  Div.  Botany,  Circular  No.  12,  Revised,  etc. 

99 


,  ico  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

,  j  Sassafras  officinale  Xees  and  Eberm. 

bassairas.       ^  Sassafras  sassafras  (Linn.)  Karst. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.  ) 

Sassafras  (local  and  common         Sassafac,    Sassafrac   (W.   Va., 

name).  Del.). 

Saxifrax,   Sasifrax  Tree  (Fla.,          Gumbo  file  (La.,  negro). 

Term.). 

Locality. 

Vermont  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  larger,  often  low  shrub,  characteristic  odor  and 
leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood,  delicate  brown,  thin  sapwood  yellowish 
white,  coarse-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  checks  in  drying,  very  durable 
in  contact  with  soil.  Slightly  aromatic. 

^       Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Pails,  buckets,  ox-yokes,  fence-posts,  and  rails. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8500. 

Remarks. 

Leaves  and  shoots  mucilaginous.  Bark  of  root  rich  in  highly 
aromatic  essences.  Sassafras  often  forms  thickets.  There  is  a 
reddish  appearance  in  the  furrows  of  the  thick  bark  that  is  on 
the  trunk  and  larger  branches.  Monardes,  a  Spanish  writer, 
described  the  sassafras  about  half  a  century  after  the  landing 
of  Columbus. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  101 

Red  Mulberry,  Mulberry.     Morus  rubra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Mulberry,  Mulberry  (local     Virginia  Mulberry  Tree  (Tenn. ). 

and  common  name).  Murier  Sauvage  (La.). 

Black  Mulberry  (N.  J.,  Pa., 

W.  Va.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Best  in  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  River  basins. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  two  and  one  half  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Sweet  edible  fruit.  Dark  brown  broken  bark, 
smooth  gray  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood,  light  orange  yellow,  thin  sapwood  whitish, 
coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  clearly 
marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with  soil, 
receives  good  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Local  ship-building,  agricultural  implements,  fencing,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

11,700,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

I  1,000. 

Remarks. 

An  ornamental  tree.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  not  adapted 
to  silkworm  culture.  (See  Annual  Report,  Chief  U.  S.  Forestry 
Division,  1887;  also  Bulletins  on  Silk,  published  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 


BUCKEYE.  HORSE  CHESTNUT. 


(/Esculus.) 

The  buckeye  and  horse  chestnut  are  species  of  the  same 
genus.  The  common  horse  chestnut  (/Esculus  hippocastanum} 
was  once  thought  to  have  been  a  native  of  Asia,  but  it  is 
now  quite  certain  that  it  originated  on  the  mountains  of 
northern  Greece.  Trees  have  been  cultivated  in  Europe  for 
at  least  three  centuries  and  are  now  extensively  grown  over 

the  United  States.  The 
name  buckeye  is  generally 
applied  to  such  species  as  are 
natives  of  North  America. 

The  woods  resemble  one 
another  in  that  they  are 
soft,  straight-grained,  easily 
worked,  and  decay  rapidly 

SOi^W  W^^» "Sll  X  when  exposed.  They  are 
employed  to  some  extent  in 
woodenware,  artificial  limbs, 
and  paper-making.  The  trees 
may  be  known  by  their  round 
prickly  pods,  containing 
smooth  chestnut-colored  bitter  nuts.  The  leaves  of  the  buckeye 
are  arranged  in  groups  of  five,  while  those  of  the  horse  chestnut 
are  in  groups  of  seven.  The  horse  chestnut  produces  showy 
spotted  flowers.  There  are  thirteen  species  of  this  genus,  eight 
of  which  are  North  American.  The  name  "horse  chestnut" 
may  refer  ironically  to  the  coarse  nuts,  or  may  arise  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  occasionally  eaten  by  cattle,  or  from  a  horse- 
shoe marking  seen  on  youpg  twigs.  Hippocastanum  is  from 
hippos,  a  horse,  and  castanea,  a  chestnut.  The  name  buckeye 
refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  brown  nut  through  the  paler 
husk  partly  separated  when  ripe,  suggesting  the  eye  of  the 
common  deer. 


Horse  Chestnut  (&sculns  hippocastamtm). 


PLATE   20.     HORSE   CHESTNUT  (JEscuius  hippocastanum) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-  BROADLEAF   WOODS.  103 

Ohio  Buckeye,  Fetid  Buckeye.     ^Esculus  glabra  Willd. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye,  Ohio  Buckeye  (local     Stinking  Buckeye  (Ala.,  Ark.). 

and  common  names).  American  Horse  Chestnut  (Pa.). 

Fetid  Buckeye  (W.  Va.). 

Locality. 

Ohio  River  basin  to  Alabama,  portions  of  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
Indian  Territory. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  forty-five  feet  in  height.  One  to  one  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter.  Yellowish-white  flower,  succeeded  by 
round  prickly  pod  or  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  white,  sapwood  a  little  darker,  close-grained,  fre- 
quent dark  lines  of  decay. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Weak,  light,  soft,  hard  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Artificial  limbs,  woodenware,  paper-pulp,  rarely  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture, 

7000, 
Remarks. 


The  nearly  similar  horse  chestnut  (A.  hippncastanum]  is  forty  to 
fifty  feet  or  more  in  height  and  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The 
light,  weak  wood  is  seldom  used.  The  name  horse  may  be  applied  to 
the  coarse  nuts  ironically,  or  may  refer  to  their  occasional  use  by 
cattle,  or  a  horseshoe  marking  seen  on  young  twigs. 


io4  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

ociandra  Marsh. 


(  ^Esculus  oclandra 
Buckeye,  Sweet  Buckeye,      j  ^scu!us  flava  A  it. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye  (N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Yellow  Buckeye  (S.  C    Ala.). 

Miss     La.,  Tex.,  Ky.).  Large  Buckeye,  Big  Buckeye 

Sweet     Buckeye     (W.      Va.,  (Tex.,  Ten n.). 

Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.). 

Locality. 

Alleghauy  Mountains,  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  westward  inter- 
mittently to  Iowa  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  low  shrub.     Large  mahogany-colored  seed. 

Color,  Appearance,  and  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood,  creamy  white,  sapwood  similar,  compact  structure, 
close-grained,  difficult  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  Ohio  Buckeye  (A.  glabra}. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
26.64. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 


Remarks. 


The  California  Buckeye  (Msculus  californica)  or  horse  chestnut, 
which  grows  along  the  Pacific  Coast  from  Mount  Shasta  to  Los 
Angeles,  is  often  quite  small,  but  is  sometimes,  as  to  the  north  of  San 
Francisco,  a  beautiful  tree  of  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height  and  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  soft,  light,  compact,  close  grained  wood 
could  probably  be  employed  in  turnery.  Sap  woods  and  heartwoods 
are  of  an  even,  ivory  white  color. 


PLATE  21.     SWEET  GUM  (Liqiiidambar  styratijlud). 


GUM. 

(Liquidambar,  Nyssa.} 

The  wood  known  as  gum  is  afforded  in  the  United  States  by 
three  trees  of  two  genera:  Sweet  or  Red  Gum  (Liquidamber  slyra- 
ciftua),  Sour  or  Black  Gum  (Nyssa  silvatica}  and  Tupelo  Gum 
(Nyssa  aquaticc) .  Gum  woods  were  once  of  slight  importance. 

The  woods  afforded  by  trees  of  these  two  genera  are  distinct 
from  one  another,  although  both  are  referred  to  by  the  one 
name,  gum.  ^The  softer  Sweet  Gum  figures  in  carpentry. 
Selected  pieces  so  resemble  black  walnut  as  to  be  cut  into 
veneers  and  made  up  into  furniture.  Sour  Gum  is  harder,  it 
splits  with  difficulty,  and  is  fitted  for  small  work  and  imple- 
ments, such  as  wagon-hubs  and  tool-handles.  ,  Both  woods 
are  close-  and  often  cross-grained,  besides  being  strong,  heavy, 
tough,  and  difficult  to  season. 

The  Sweet  Gum  tree  is  characterized  by  rough,  round  balls, 
resembling  those  of  the  sycamore,  by  pointed  star-like  leaves, 
suggesting  those  of  the  sugar 
maple,  and  by  corky  ridges 
on  the  bark  of  younger 
branches.  These  latter 
cause  the  bark  to  resemble 
alligator-skin  and  give  rise 
to  the  name  alligator-wood. 
Liquidambar  refers  to  gums 
excreted  by  the  tree  and 

Sometimes  Used  in  medicine.       SWEET  GuM  (Liqmdam6ar  styraaflua). 

The  Sour  Gum  bears  ovoid  bluish-black  sour  drupes,  or  fruit 
containing  single  roughened  seeds.  The  thick  oval  leaves  are 
dark  green  above  and  dull  or  hairy  below.  The  foliage  of 

both  species  becomes  brilliant  in  autumn. 

105 


io6  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Sweet  Gum.  Liquidambar  siyraciflua  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Sweet  Gum  (local  and  com-  Red  Gum  (Va.,   Ala.,  Miss., 

mon  name).  Tex.,  La.). 

Liquidambar  (R.   I.,   N.   Y.,  Gum,  Gum  Tree  (Va.,  S.  C., 

Del.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  La.,  Tex.,  La.). 

Ohio,  111.).  Alligatorwood,  Blisted  (N.  J.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Illinois  and 
Texas,  Mexico.  Greatest  development  in  basin  of  Mississippi 
River. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  five  feet 
in  diameter.  Tall  straight  trunk,  corky  ridges  frequent  on 
branches.  Star-shaped  leaves  turn  to  brilliant  scarlet  in 
autumn,  round  balls  on  long  stems. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown  suggesting  black  walnut,  sapwood 
nearly  white,  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  rather  soft,  strong,  stiff,  durable  when  exposed  ,f  shrinks 
and  warps  badly  in  seasoning,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Veneers,  cabinet-work,  substitute  for  black  walnut,  shingles,  clap- 
boards, paving-blocks,  wooden  plates,  carpentry,  boxes,  staves. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

37  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,700,000  (average  of  118  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,220,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9500  (average  of  118  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
9200. 

Remarks. 

Wood  sometimes  commercially  known  as  satin  walnut  and 
sometimes  as  star-leaved  gum.  Large  specimens  often  have 
hollow  butts.  Clear  wood  is  obtained  in  large  boards.  The 
wood  is  tasteless  and  is  use  1  for  barrels. 

*  See  page  8. 

t  E.   C.  Woodward,    C.  E.,  Division  Engineer  Texas  &  Pacific  Ry.,  re{x>rts 
"  gum  "  ties  good  after  5  years'  service.     They  hold  spikes  well. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS. 


107 


Sour  Gum,  Black  Gum,  Tupelo.     Nyssa  sylvatica  Marsh. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sour  Gum,  Black  Gum,  Tu-  Wild  Pear  Tree,  Yellow  Gum 
pelo  (local  and  common  Tree  (Tenn.). 

names).  Gum  (Md.). 

Pepperidge  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  L,  Stinkwood  (W.  Va.)0 

N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  S.  C.,  Tenn.,  Tupelo  Gum  (Fla.). 
Mich.,  Ohio,  Ontario). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty-five  to  one  hundred  feet  high,  one  and  six  indites  to  occa- 
sionally four  feet  in  diameter.  Ovoid,  bluish-black,  sour 
fruit,  with  seed.  Horizontal  branches,  short  spur-like  lateral 
branchlets. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow,  often  nearly  white,  sapwood 
hardly  distinguishable,  fine  grain.  Interwoven  fibres. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  not  hard,  fibres  interlaced,  therefore  hard  to  work, 
strong,  tough,  checks  unless  carefully  seasoned,  not  durable 
in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Wagon-hubs,  rollers,  ox-yokes,  bowls,  and  woodenware. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

39- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1 1, 800. 

Remarks. 

Limited  usefulness  because  difficult  to  work.  Larger  specimen 
in  South.  Large  trees  often  hollow  at  butts  and  sometimes 
higher.  Grows  on  hillsides  and  the  borders  of  swamps  or 
waterways. 


Ic8  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cotton  Gum,  Tupele  Gum,  Large  Tupelo.     Nyssa  aquatics.  Linn. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Cotton    Gum,   Tupelo  Gum,  Tupelo,  Swamp  Tupelo  (N.C., 

Large    Tupelo    (local    and  S.  C,  La.). 

common  names).  Olivetree,       Wild      Olivetree 

Sour  Gum  (Ark.,  Mo.).  (Miss.,  La.). 

Locality. 

Virginia  and  Kentucky,  southward. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  Blue 
oblong  fruit  one  inch  or  more  in.  length. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  often  nearly  white,  sapwood  nearly 
the  same. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  soft,  compact,  difficult  to  work,  not  durable 
when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Turnery,  woodenware,  roots  used  as  net-floats  instead  of  corks. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Butts  of  large  trees  are  usually  hollow.  Parts  above  are  usually 
sound.  The  light,  strong,  cheap  wood  is  used  in  box  making. 
The  trees  are  found  on  rich  bottom  lands  and  in  deep  swamps, 
often  associated  with  cypress.  Aquatica  refers  to  the  fact  that 
the  tree  tolerates  quantities  of  water. 


The  Sour  Gum  (Nyssa  ogeche)  grows  on  wet  lands  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  from  South  Carolina  to  Northern  and  Western  Florida. 
Trees  attain  heights  of  thirty  to  fifty  feet.  The  soft,  compact,  weak, 
brownish  heartwood  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  brownish 
sapwood.  The  tree  is  also  known  as  Ogeechee  Lime,  Wild  Limetree, 
Limetree,  Tupelo,  Sour  Tupelo  and  Gopher  Plum. 


PLATE  22. 


HOLLY,    BOXWOOD,    LIGNUMVIT.E   (//«,  Buxus,  etc.)- 


Box  Tree  (fiitjeus  sempfrvirens). 
Holly  Foliage  (Ilex  opaca). 

Lignumvitae  Foliage  (G.  sanctum). 


Dogwood  Foliage  (Cornus  florida}. 
Dogwcxxl  Bark  (Cornus  Jlorida). 
Dogwcxxl  \Vood. 

Lignumvitae  Wood. 


HOLLY.  BOXWOOD.  LIGNUMVITJB. 

(Ilex.)          (Buxus,  Cornus,  etc.)          (Guajacum.) 

The  woods  afforded  by  these  trees  are  all  demanded  in 
small  and  very  perfect  pieces  to  fill  needs  for  which  no  others 
appear  to  be  perfectly  fitted.  The  holly  (Ilex)  grows  in 
Europe  and  America,  where  the  brilliant  evergreen  foliage 
and  red  berries  have  long  been  associated  with  the  Christmas 
season.  The  name  holly  is  probably  a  subversion  of  ' '  Holy. ' '  * 
The  true  boxwood  (Buxus  sempervirens]  attains  to  some  size  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  remains  a  small  shrub  in  America,  where 
it  is  seldom  if  ever  cut  for  wood,  but  is  placed  as  a  decoration 
along  the  borders  of  walks  and  gardens.  The  wood  called 
4 '  boxwood  ' '  in  America  is  not  therefore  derived  from  the 
' '  box. ' '  The  Lignumvitaes  grow  in  Florida,  the  West  Indies, 
and  on  the  northern  coast  of  South  America. 

Holly-wood  is  noted  for  its  fine,  even  grain,  but  chiefly  for 
its  smooth,  ivory-white  color,  fitting  it  for  the  white  of  inlaid 
work,  for  carvings  and  other  decorations  where  white  color  and 
fine  qualities  are  required.  The  principal  European  source  is 
the  Ilex  aquifolium,  while  in  America  it  is  the  Ilex  opaca. 
Inlaid  work  requires  a  design  drawn  or  stencilled  upon  a  thin 
sheet  of  light  colored  wood  such  as  holly.  This  sheet  is  fast- 
ened over  a  similar  one  of  darker  wood  and  a  sharp  knifc 
passed  over  the  design  cuts  through  both  sheets  alike.  The 
figures  of  the  lighter  tinted  wood  are  inserted  within  the  spaces 
vacated  by  the  corresponding  figures  of  darker  wood  and  vice 
'versa.  The  sheet  with  insertions  is  then  glued  upon  a  "  core  " 
of  seasoned  wood  as  in  the  preparation  of  ordinary  veneered 
work.  (See  pp.  75, 121.)  •  Boxwood  is,  as  stated,  the  name  applied 
to  several  woods,  all  noted  for  their  fine  compact  structure,  ren- 
dering them  suitable  for  very  fine  carvings  such  as  are  required 
in  wood- engraving.  |  The  Eastern  product  as  cut  from  the  true 
box  is  so  highly  prized  as  to  be  sold  by  the  pound.  Many  of 

*  "  The  German  name  Christdorn,  the  Danish  name  Christorn,  and  the  Swed'sh 
name  Christtorn  seem  to  justify  this  conjecture." 

109 


no  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

the  best  pieces,  of  true  boxwood  in  billets  three  to  twelve  inches 
across,  are  from  Circassia  and  Odessa.  It  is  hard  to  season 
boxwood  so  that  it  will  not  crack.  Eastern  turners  are  said  to 
place  it  in  dark  cellars  for  several  years  before  use.  Boxwood 
is  valued  for  mathematical  instruments,  and  no  other  wood  has 
ever  proved  so  successful  for  fine  engravings.  American  sub- 
stitutes are  coarser.  American  boxwood  is  chiefly  derived  from 
the  Flowering  Dogwood;  the  Mexican  Persimmon,  and  the  Rose 
Bay.  In  Australia  several  species  of  Eucalyptus  are  said  to  be 
used.  Lignumvitae  is  noted  for  great  strength  and  hardness. 
Layers  of  fibres  alternately  cross  one  another  so  that  the  wood 
may  be  said  to  crumble  rather  than  split.  It  has  no  superior 
for  implements  that  must  be  fine,  true,  and  strong,  such  as  the 
sheaves  of  pulleys  and  handles  of  tools.  The  supply  is  obtained 
from  two  species  (Guajacum  sanctum  and  Guajacum  officinale). 

Holly  may  be  known  by  its  foliage  and  berries.  Box 
(Buxus)  has  small,  smooth,  ovate,  dark,  evergreen  leaves 
joining  the  stem  so  as  to  be  opposite  one[another.  The  Dogwood 
is  known  by  its  flowers.  The  Lignumvitae  is  a  low  gnarled  tree. 

Lignumvitae  ties,  so  hard  that  "holes  must  be  bored 
for  spikes,"  have  lasted  for  thirty  or  forty  years  on  the 
Panama  Railway.  These  ties  were  finally  removed  because 
they  had  rubbed  against  the  road  covering  until  they  were 
round,  and  also  because  some  of  them  had  from  the  first,  been 
too  small  to  afford  proper  bearing  for  the  rails;  but  the  wood 
had  not  rotted,  even  in  that  moist,  hot  district,  nor  had  the 
rails  cut  far  into  the  ties.*  It  is  said  that  Lignumvitae  was 
introduced  into  Europe  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  America: 
it  became  noted  for  medicinal  properties  that  are  yet  recognized, 
although  of  doubtful  real  value.  A  resin  called  Guajac  or 
Guaiac,  obtained  by  tapping  trees  or  else  warming  billets  of 
wood  from  perforations  in  which  melted  resins  flow,  has  been 
employed,  in  tincture,  as  a  reagent,  for  the  detection  of  blood 
stains.  The  name  Lignumvitae  originated  from  the  supposition 
that  extracts  possessed  extraordinary  remedial  powers.t 

*  Correspondence  Mr.  Gustave  R.  Tuska,  A.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  late  Engineer 
Panama  Railway.     Also  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  52,  page  66. 
t  U.  S.  Dispensatory. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  m 

Holly,  American  Holly.  Ilex  opaca  Ait. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Holly,  American  Holly  (local         White  Holly  (Va.). 
and  common  names). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Indiana 
and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Occasionally  fifty  feet  in  height  and  three  feet  in  diameter,  fre- 
quently much  smaller,  particularly  in  North.  Foliage  is  ever- 
green. Bright  red  berries  remain  until  spring. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  cream-white,  darkening  or  spotting  on  exposure. 
Sapwood  similar  or  lighter.  Very  close-grained,  compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  moderately  hard  and  heavy,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Inlaid  work,  carvings,  scrollwork,  turnery,  moderately  for  furni- 
ture and  decoration. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9700. 

Remarks. 

The  wood  resembles  ivory,  and  is  characteristically  employed  for 
the  white  of  inlaid  work.  The  more  elaborate  specimens  of 
inlaid  work  are  manufactured  in  Italy,  but  they  are  not  always 
durable,  at  least  when  brought  into  the  highly  heated  houses  of 
the  Northern  States.  Inlaid  work  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  originally  by  imported  workmen,  may  be  less  elaborate 
but  is  often  more  durable  than  the  foreign  product.  This  is 
because  Americans  employ  more  perfectly  prepared  materials. 


112  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

'  Dogwood,  Flowering  Dogwood.     Carnus  florida  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Dogwood,     Flowering    Dog-  False  Box-dogwood  (Ky.). 

wood   (local  and  common  New       England       Boxwood 

names).  (Tenn.). 

Boxwood  (Conn.,  R.  I.,  N.Y.,  Cornel,      Flowering      Cornel 

Miss.,    Mich.,    Ky.,    Ind.,  (Tex.,  R.  I.). 

Ont.). 

Locality. 

New  England  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 
and  Texas,  Sierra  Madra  Mountains,  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet  in  height,  one  foot  or  more  in 
diameter.  Often  low  shrub,  large  white  flowers  precede 
foliage,  red  berry  in  fall.  Rough  blackish  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  changing  to  green  and  red.  Sapwood 
lighter,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  strong,  tough,  hard,  receives  high  polish. 

^Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
J       Wood-carving,  engraving,  bearings  of  machinery,  turnery. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

50. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

The  Mexican  or  Black  Persimmon  and  the  Great  Laurel  (Rho- 
dodendron maximum]  afford  substitutes.  Yellowwood  (Schaef- 
feria  frutescens)  is  also  known  as  boxwood.  The  names 
Dogwood  and  Poison  Dogwood  are  often  applied  to  the 
sumach.  Cornus  signifies  horn  and  refers  to  hardness  of 
wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF   WOODS.  113 

Lignumvitae.  Guajacwn  sanctum. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Lignumvitae  (Fla.).  Ironwood  (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Semitropical  Florida,  Bahamas,  San  Domingo,  Cuba,  Puerto 
Rico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  feet  high,  one  foot  in  diameter,  a  low  gnarled  tree. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  yellow-brown  in  younger  specimens  and  almost 
black  in  older  onis.  Sapwood  light  yellow.  Close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy  and  exceedingly  hard,  strong,  hard  to  work,  brittle. 

Lubricated  by  water,  very  durable. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Sheaves  of  ship-blocks,  rollers,  pulleys,  tool-handles.     Bearings 
for  journals  rotating  in  water. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

.7i 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,220,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,100. 
Remarks. 

Two  other  species,  Guajacum  officinale  and  Guajacum  arborium, 

afford  similar  woods  not    commercially  distinguished  from  the 

'  above.     Ties  of  a  kind  of  Lignumvitse,  so  hard  that  holes  had 

to  be  bored  for  spikes,  have  resisted   thirty  years  exposure  in 

moist,  hot  climate  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


Sissoo  and  Sabicu  have  attracted  attention,  but  have  given  way  to  other  timbers 
more  plentiful,  better  located  and  as  good. 

Sabicu  (Lysiloma  sabicu).  This  West  Indian  wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  strong 
and  plastic.  It  seasons  and  works  well,  is  very  durable  and  is  good  for  keels 
frames  and  the  like.  The  beautiful,  dark  brown  color  with  figured  satiny  grain, 
together  with  the  finishing  qualities  of  this  wood,  have  caused  it  to  be  used  in 
furniture.  It  may  be  mistaken  for  rosewood. 

Sissoo  (Dalbergia  sissoo}  is  a  medium  sized  tree,  native  in  Northern  India  and 
acclimated  in  California.  The  very  hard,  heavy,  strong,  elastic  wood  seasons  well, 
lasts  well,  and  is  used  in  wheels,  carriage  frames,  implements  and  furniture.  It 
was  once  prized  for  gun  carriages.  The  brownish  tint  suggests  rosewood  and 
much  rosewood  comes  from  a  related  species.  (See  page  122.)  Sissoo  is  now 
scarce. 


LAUREL. 

(Magnolia,  Rhododendron,  Arbutus,  etc.) 

The  name  Laurel  applies  locally  or  botanically  to  a  number 
of  American  plants,  several  of  which  attain  to  the  dignity  of 

trees. 

The  Big  Laurel  or  Magnolia  (M.  grandiflord)  is  an  orna- 
mental tree  of  the  highest  rank,  extensively  planted  in  parks 
and  gardens  of  American  cities  as  far  north  as  Washington, 
and  also  grown  in  Europe.  The  wood  is  suitable  for  interior 
finish  and  is  also  used  for  fuel.  The  California  Laurel  (Umbel- 
lularia  californica)  and  the  Madrona  or  Madrona  Laurel 
(Arbutus  menziesii)  are  Pacific  coast  species  of  beautiful 
appearance,  the  strong,  heavy,  hard  woods  of  which  are  of 
economic  importance.  Professor  Sargent  considers  *  that  the 
former  is  the  most  valuable  interior -or  cabinet  wood  produced 
by  the  forests  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  wood  of  the  Madrona 
has  little  or  no  place  in  construction,  but  its  charcoal  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The  wood  of  the  Great 
Laurel  or  Rose  Bay  (Rhododendron  maximum}  has  been  used 
as  boxwood.  The  gnarled  roots  of  the  Mountain  Laurel  or 
calico  bush  (Kalmia  latifolia]  are  used  for  rustic  hanging- 
baskets,  seats,  and  the  like. 

All  of  the  kinds  here  noted  have  evergreen  foliage. 
*  Page  69,  "Catalogue  Jesup  Collection,"  Sargent. 

California  end  Florida  are  particularly  rich  in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  trees 
transplanted  from  many  parts  of  the  world.  Most  of  them  are  landscape  exhibits 
or  experiments,  rather  than  commercial  successes  or  necessities,  but  some  are  speci- 
ally noticeable.  ("Olive,"  see  footnote  page  34,  "Pepper,"  footnote  page  115, 
"Orange,"  footnote  page  34,  "Camphor,"  footnote  page  99,  etc.) 

Rubber  Trees. — Commercial  rubber  is  afforded  by  trees  of  several  genera  as 
Ficus,  Hevea,  and  Castilla.  The  Assam  rubber  tree  (F.  elastica),  a  native  of  trop- 
ical Asia,  is  particularly  valued  for  rubber.  This  species,  as  well  as  F.  macro- 
phylla,  F.  rubiginosa,  F.  glomerata  and  others,  grows  in  Florida  anJ  California, 
where  they  are  all  valued  only  in  landscape  effects.  Some  American  specimens 
are  fifty  or  more  feet  in  height.  Small  rubber  plants  are  used  in  house  decora- 
tion. Para  rubber  is  afforded  by  H.  braziliensis  and  related  species,  Mexican 
rubber  by  Castilla  alba  and  related  species.  Rubber  is  secreted  only  under  favor- 
able conditions.— Also  see  Cook,  U.  S.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  49,  "India 
Rubber  World,"  etc.,  etc. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  115 

California  Laurel,  Mountain  Laurel.     Umbellularia  californka  Nutt. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

California    Laurel,    Mountain         Myrtle-tree,     Cajeput,     Cali- 

Laurel  (Cal.,  Nev.).  fornia  Olive  (Oreg.). 

California    Bay    Tree,     Spice         Californian  Sassafras. 

Tree  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Oreg.). 
Laurel,  Bay-tree,  Oreodaphne  (Cal.). 
Locality. 

California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  five  feet  in 

diameter.     Evergreen  foliage,  beautiful  appearance. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  rich  brown,  sapwood  lighter  brown.  Close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  receives  beautiful  polish. 

Y  Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  cabinet-work,  cleats,  crosstrees. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

40. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,510,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400. 
Remarks. 

A  valuable  Pacific  coast  cabinet  wood.  Foliage  and  wood  are 
characterized  by  pungent  oils,  sometimes  separated  by  distillation 
and  used  in  medicine. 


The  Pepper,  California  Pepper  or  Peruvian  Mastic  (Schinus  molle)  was  first 
introduced  into  California  from  Peru  by  the  early  Spanish  missions  and  is  now 
one  of  the  most  popular  shade  trees  in  many  places  south  of  San  Francisco.  It 
is  an  irregular  tree  thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height  and  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  It  suggests  an  apple  tree  with  the  drooping  foliage  of  the  willow. 
There  is  a  mass  of  slender  branchlets,  light  fern-like  foliage  and  long  sprays  of 
red  or  rose  tinted  persistent  berries  the  size  of  currants  or  pepper  corns,  whence 
the  name.  The  berries  contrast  with  bright,  evergreen  leaves  and  render  this  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  landscape  trees.  The  leaves  emit  a  pleasant,  pungent 
odor  and  possess,  to  some  degree,  the  quality  of  stopping  dust,  which  does  not 
however  adhere  to  the  leaves.  There  are  gutta  percha  like  exudations  used  in 
medicine.  The  soft,  smooth,  whitish  woods  that  sometimes  darken  with  age  are 
not  employed  save  for  fuel.  The  pepper  is  the  host  of  the  "  black  scale  "  and  is 
1  eing  replaced  by  the  better,  faster  growing  Longleaved  Pepper  (Schinus  tere- 
binthifolius)  from  Bra^il.  Fourteen  of  the  seventeen  species  are  South  American. 
No  one  is  important  save  as  above.  (Calif.  Agricultural  Exper.  Station,  Bui.  147. 
Correspondence  U.  S.  Forestry  Bureau.  Also  see  Bailey,  Cyclopedia  Am.  Hor- 
ticulture..) 


A 


U6  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Madrona,  Madrona  Laurel.    Arbutus  menzicsii  Pursh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Madrona,     Madrona    Laurel  Madrone-tree,      Manzanita 

(Gal.,  Oreg.).  (Oreg.,  Cal.). 

Laurel,  Laurelwood,  Madrone.  Madrove  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  from  British  Columbia  to  southern  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.  Two 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Straight  well-formed  trunk.  Ever- 
green foliage.  A  shrub  in  the  South. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  reddish,  thin  sapwood  slightly  pink.  Close- 
grained;  numerous  and  conspicuous  medullary  rays 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  for  gunpowder,  charcoal,  also  furniture. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,190,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,000. 
Remarks. 

A  beautiful  ornamental  tree.  The  attractive  wood  is  seldom 
seen  save  locally.  This  tree  has  been  confused  with  the  Laurel, 
Madrona  or  Mexican  Madrona  (Arbutus  xalapensis)  also  called 
the  Manzanita,  and  with  California  species  of  the  genus  Arc- 
tostaphylos  from  which  Manzanita  wood  is  derived. 


The  name  Manzanita  is  somewhat  loosely  used  to  designate  a  hard,  heavy, 
close-grained,  rich,  reddish  brown  wood  that  lends  itself  to  various  trinkets,  as 
cuff  buttons,  rulers,  checkers  and  the  like,  seen  in  California  curio  stores.  Large 
sized  pieces  are  rare  and  long  pieces  practically  unknown.  Most  Manzanita  wood 
is  probably  derived  from  Arctostaphylos  pungens,  Arctostaphylos  tomentosa  and 
Arctostaphylos  glauca. 

The  China  or  China-berry  (Melia  azedarach)  of  Louisiana  and  other  southern 
States  is  sometimes,  as  in  California,  known  as  the  Umbrella  tree  and  elsewhere, 
as  in  Europe,  as  the  Bead  tree  and  Pride  of  India.  The  short,  straight  trunk 
merges  abruptly  into  numerous  branches  radiating  outward  like  the  ribs  of  an 
umbrella.  The  peculiar  form,  rapid  development  and  thick  handsome  foliage 
cause  the  tree  to  be  used  in  southern  landscapes.  The  pits  of  the  white  (china) 
berries  are  sometimes  used  as  beads.  The  handsome  wood  suggests  mahogany 
and  could  doubtless  have  place  in  furniture  and  decoration. 


PLATE  23.     PERSIMMON,  OSAGE  ORANGE,  CHERRY 

(Diospyros),  (Afaciura),  (Prunus). 


Osage  Orange  Trunk  (Af.  aurantiara).       Wild  Black  Cherry  Trunk  (/>.  terotima\ 
Cherry  Wood. 

Osage  Orange  W«KM!. 

Persimmon  Wood. 


PERSIMMON.     OSAGE  ORANGE.     CHERRY. 

(Diospyros.)  (Madura.)  (Prunus.) 

The  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana)  grows  in  many  of 
the  central  and  southern  United  States  and  affords  a  hard, 
tough  wood,  resembling  fine-grain  hickory,  that  is  used  for 
implements  and  other  small  work.  The  plum-like  fruit  is 
remarkably  astringent  when  green,  but  is  sweet,  rich,  and 
palatable  when  ripe.  The  persimmon  is  a  member  of  the 
ebony  family  (Ebenacece),  and  the  extremely  close-grained 
heartwood  is  almost  black.  The  ebony  of  commerce  is 
derived  from  tropical  species  of  this  genus. 

The  Osage  Orange  or  Bois  D '  Arc  (Madura  aurantiacd]  is 
found  in  the  Gulf  and  neighboring  States,  and  has  been  culti- 
vated in  the  North.  The  wood  is  unusually  hard  and  strong,  and 
is  of  a  yellow  color,  which,  however,  darkens  with  age.  It  is  in 
many  ways  a  unique  and  serviceable  product,  widely  utilized 
locally  in  the  South,  but  almost  unknown  in  the  North,  and 
nowhere  sufficiently  appreciated.  The  aborigines  made  bows 
and  arrows  of  it,  whence  the  name  Bois  D' Arc.  The  tree  affords 
a  useless  fruit  somewhat  resembling  the  common  orange  in 
appearance. 

The  widely  distributed  Wild  Cherry  or  Wild  Black  Cherry 
(Prunus  serotina]  supplies  the  cherry  wood  of  commerce. 
This  wood  is  strong,  hard,  fine-grained,  red-colored,  and  one 
of  the  most  popular  decorative  woods  of  the  American  forests. 
Sweet  or  Cherry  Birch  (Betula  lento]  is  often  stained  so  as  to 
imitate  it,  while  it  of  itself  is  stained  so  as  to  resemble 
mahogany.  The  wood  of  the  cultivated  cherry  is  not  used  in 
the  United  States.  The  wild  cherry  bears  purplish-black  fruit 
somewhat  larger  than  peas,  sweetly  bitter  when  ripe.  The 
bark  is  also  bitter.  It  should  be  noted  of  these  woods  that  the 
thin  heart  of  the  persimmon  is  black,  that  of  the  Bois  d'Arc  is 
yellow,  and  that  of  the  cherry  is  red.  Each  receives  a  high 

polish. 

117 


n8  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Persimmon.  Diospyros  virginiana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Persimmon    (local    and  com-         Simmon,  Possumwood  (Fla.). 

mon  name).  Plaqueminier  (La.). 

Date  Plum  (N.  J.,  Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Missouri  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Occasionally  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Soft  plum-like  fruit,  astringent  when  green,  sweet  when  ripe. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark-brown  or  black,  sapwood  light-brown,  often 
with  darker  spots.  Very  thin  heartwood.  Very  close-grained, 
compact  structure.  Medullary  rays  conspicuous.  Resembles 
hickory. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Plane-stocks,  shoe-lasts,  etc.      Prized  for  shuttles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

49- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,110,  ooo. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

The  astringency  of  unripe  fruit  is  due  to  tannic  acid.  The  dried 
and  roasted  seeds  have  been  used  for  coffee.*  Heartwood  is 
not  greatly  developed  in  trees  under  one  hundred  years  of  age. 


*  U.  S.  Dispensatory. 


Ebony.  This  name  applies  to  several  hard,  black  woods,  that 
are  used  in  inlaid  work,  for  the  black  keys  of  pianos  and  other  special 
purposes.  Ebony  is  derived  from  several  species  of  the  genus  Dios- 
pyros that  are  native  in  Ceylon  and  Southern  India.  Jamaica  ebony 
is  afforded  by  Bijra  ebemis.  There  are  other  sources. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  119 


Osage  Orange.         {  ^adu7ra 

\  Toxylon  pomiferum  Raf. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Osage  Orange  (local  and  com-         Hedge,    Hedge-plant,    Osage 

mon  name).  (111.,  la.,  Neb.). 

Bois  D'Arc  (La.,  Tex.,  Mo.).         Mock  Orange  (La.), 
Bodark,  Bodock  (Kans.).  Bow-wood  (Ala.). 

Yellow-wood,     Osage    Apple 

Tree  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Arkansas,   Indian  Territory,   and  Texas.     Cultivated 
elsewhere,  as  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  rarely  beyond  one  and  one-half  feet 
in  diameter.      Fruit  resembles  orange.      Long  thorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  bright  orange,  turns  brown  on  exposure.     Sapwood 
light  yellow,  close-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  very  strong,  flexible,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 
Receives  beautiful  polish.      Shrinks  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fence-posts,  piles,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  paving-blocks, 
occasionally  indoor  decoration,  carriage  making,  machinery. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Indians  used  wood  for  bows,  thus  the  name 
Bois  D'Arc,  corrupted  into  Bow  Dark  or 
Bodark.     A  valuable  wood  not  enough 
appreciated.     Often  planted  as  hedges. 
The  fruit  is  useless.     The  durability  of  I 
some  pieces  of  this  wood  is  remarkable.   \ 
The  Kansas  City,  Ft.  Scott  and  Memphis 
Ry.  has  a  Boda'rk  plantation  at  Farling- 
ton,  Kansas. 

OSAGE  ORANGE. 


120  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Wild  Black  Cherry,  Wild  Cherry.     Prunus  serotina  Ehrh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Wild     Black     Cherry,     Wild         Rum  Cherry  (N.   H.,  Mass., 

Cherry  (local  and  common  R.  I.,  Miss.,  Neb.). 

names).  Whiskey  Cherry  (Minn.). 

Black   Cherry   (Me.,    N.   H.,         Choke    Cherry    (Mo.,    Wis., 

Vt.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Miss.,  la.). 

Ky.,     Mich.,    Wis.,     Ind., 

Neb.). 

Locality. 

Eastern  to  Central  United  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  eighty  feet  in  height.     Two  to  three  or  more  feet  in 
diameter.      Bitter  bark,  pea-sized  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  yellow,  fine  straight  grain, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  strong,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Cabinet-work,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,700. 
Remarks. 

The  bitter  bark  contains  medicinal 

valued    in    bronchitis  and  other  troubles. 

The   fruit,    agreeable   when    ripe,    is   also 

used  in  medicines  and  cordials. 


WILD  BLACK  CHERRY 

(J^runHS  Sf  retina). 


PLATE  24.     TEAK   AND   GREENHEART  (Tectona,  Nectandra,  etc.). 


Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiali). 


Teak  ( Tectona  gramas'). 


TEAK.  GREENHEART. 

(Tectona.}  (Nectandra.) 

There  are  two  Teaks ;  the  principal  one  (  Tectona  grandis\ 
a  native  of  Asia,  has  been  called  the  "Oak"  of  the  Indian 
forests,  the  other  (Oldfieldia  africana}  is  an  African  tree.* 
The  Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiali}  is  of  the  laurel  family  and 
grows  in  South  America.  The  woods,  although  foreign,  are  of 
such  nature  as  to  have  widely  established  reputations,  and  each 
has  at  some  time  been  used  in  construction. 

Teak  suggests  oak,  save  that  it  is  lighter  and  has  a  more 
uniform  structure.  It  is  very  durable,  and  an  oily  secretion 
repels  insects  and  preserves  iron  fastenings.  During  the 
supremacy  of  wooden  vessels  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best 
ship-building  woods  in  existence.  The  grain  fits  it  for  carv- 
ings, and  it  is  now  known  in  North  America  chiefly  because 
of  this  fact.  Indian  teak  is  the  wood  usually  referred  to. 

Greenheart,  a  South  American  wood,  was  early  placed 
among  the  first  class  of  ship-building  woods  by  Lloyd's  Regis- 
ter, and  is  yet  taken  to  Europe  to  some  extent  for  dock-  and 
ship-building  and  for  implements,  but  is  seldom  found  and  but 
little  known  in  the  United  States.  It  is  strong,  hard,  durable, 
and  extremely  heavy,  the  latter  quality  being  so  pronounced  as 
to  limit  its  field  of  usefulness.  It  was  hoped  that  such  hard 
wood  would  resist  attacks  from  marine  borers,  but  this  has  not 
been  the  case.  (See  page  190.)  Greenheart  is  suited  for  rollers, 
pins,  and  similar  articles  that  require  great  strength  and  dura- 
bility. Finished  pieces  of  selected  woods  are  so  rich  in  appear- 
ance that  it  is  surprising  that  they  are  not  seen  oftener.  They 
are  of  wax-like,  green-yellow  or  browns.  A  small  quantity  of 
Greenheart  is  used  in  American  cabinet  work. 

*  It  was  long  supposed  that  African  teak  was  supplied  by  the  species  Swietenia 
senegalensis.  It  is  now  known  that  the  source  is  Oldfieldia  africana,  of  the  family 
Euphorbiacece.  It  is  not  impossible  that  wood  passing  as  teak  may  be  derived 
from  yet  other  species. 


122  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Teak.  Teclona  grandis. 

Nomenclature. 

Teak.  Teek. 

Indian  Oak.  Sagwan. 

Locality. 

India,  Burma,  Siam,  Ceylon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Straight  trunk,  large  drooping 
deciduous  leaves.  Unsuccessful  in  California 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Variable,  brownish-yellow,  straight,  even-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately  hard,  strong,  easily  worked,  stands  well,  oily, 
fragrant,  resists  termites,  preserves  iron. 

Representative  Uses  of  W'ood. 

Furniture,  ship-building,  timbers,  backing  for  armor-plates. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
50  (Laslett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,338,000  (Lazlett). 
2,100,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
15,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The  oil  is  thought  to  preserve  iron  and  repel  termites.  Burma, 
Malabar,  Rangoon,  and  other  teaks  take  names  from  districts 
producing  them.  The  distinct  African  teak  (Oldfieldia  afri- 
cand]  affords  wood  sometimes  marketed  as  African  mahog- 
any and  sometimes  as  African  oak. 

There  are  many  rosewoods.  African  rosewood  is  derived  from  Pterocarpus 
erinaceus,  Brazilian  rosewood  from  Dalbergia  nigra,  Indian  rosewood  from 
Dalbergia  latifolia,  Jamaica  rosewood  from  Amyris  balsamifera  and  Linociera 
ligustrina,  and  Canary  rosewood  from  Convolvulus  scoparius.  There  is  a  faulty 
purplish  Philippine  wood  as  well  as  other  botanical  sources  in  each  one  of  the 
districts  noted.  Commercial  rosewood  is  hard,  tough,  very  fine-grained  and  of 
compact  structure.  The  colors  vary  from  rich  reds  to  chestnut,  with  frequent 
black  streaks  or  purplish  effects.  The  demand  is  small.  The  wood  has  been 
used  in  local  constructions,  but  is  normally  seen  in  costly  furniture,  piano  cases, 
burial  caskets  and  panel  work.  Compartment  rare  sometimes  have  "  rosewood 
rooms"  associated  with  other  rooms  of  Circassian  walnut  and  English  oak. 
There  are  other  names  for  Rosewood,  as  Blackwood,  Bloodwood,  and  African 
Teak.  The  name  Rosewood  is  due  to  the  rose  scent,  often  faint,  but  sometimes 
very  pronounced.  An  oil  distilled  from  one  species  has  been  used  to  adulterate 
attar  of  roses.  "  California  rosewood  "  seen  in  souvenirs  is  derived  from  stems 
of  large  rose  bushes. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  123 

Greenheart.  Nectandra  rodioei. 

Nomenclature. 

Greenheart  (local  and  common  name). 

Locality. 

British  Guiana  and  adjacent  portions  of  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  sometimes  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  four 
feet  in  diameter.  A  straight  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  green  to  chestnut  or  nearly  black,  sapwood 
similar.  Clean,  straight,  compact  structure,  free  from  knots. 
Numerous  pores,  annual  layers  hardly  distinguishable.  Cabinet 
work. 

Structural  Qualities-  of  Wood. 

Exceptionally  heavy,  strong,  and  durable,  tough,  hard,  elastic, 
receives  high  polish,  breaks  suddenly. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-keels,  frames,  rollers,  turnery,  also  beams,  planks,  and 
piles  (Europe).  In  America  tops  of  fishing-rods  and  very 
occasionally  veneers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
72  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity.     1,090,000  (Lazlett). 
Modulus  of  Rupture.     10,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

Excessive  weight  unfits  it  for  many  purposes.  Greenheart  lasts 
longer  than  steel  in  the  sewage  polluted  waters  of  the  Liverpool 
docks  and  it  is  more  easily  mended.  Wood  erected  in  1856 
was  recently  removed  and  found  to  be  so  sound  that  it  could  be 
re-used.  Metal  fastenings  showed  serious  decay.  (Also  see 
Kenyon,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  K,  Vol.  LII. 

The  Sandalwood  of  commerce  is  derived  from  many  botanical  sources.  The. 
genus  Santalum  alone  includes  twenty  species.  Until  the  eighteenth  century, 
wood  was  obtained  from  China.  The  discovery  of  sources  on  the  Pacific  Islands 
led  to  lawless  traffic  and  much  bloodshed.  The  adventures  associated  with  the 
collection  of  this  wood  equalled  those  encountered  in  whaling  and  in  the  search 
for  ivory.  The  history  of  the  wood  dates  before  the  Christian  era.  Sandalwood 
(Santalum  album)  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  color,  close-grained,  very  fragrant,  and 
weighing  about  fifty-eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Sandalwood  was  prized  by  the 
French  nobility  for  medallions  mounted  on  otherwise  decorated  surfaces  and  for 
rich  furniture.  It  is  now  occasionally  employed  in  fine  carvings  for  small  objects, 
as  jewel-boxes  and  fan-handles.  A  fragrant  oil  is  separated  by  distillation. 
Powdered  wood  is  burned  as  incense.  Sandalwood  is  associated  with  Buddhism 
in  India  and  China.  Red  sandalwood  or  Saunder's  wood  (Pterocarpus  santalinus) 
yields  a  red  dye  called  santalin  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  almug  tree  of 
Solomon. 


MAHOGANY. 

(Swietenia,  Kbaya,  Soymida,  Cedrela,  etc. ) 

lyThere  are  three  principal  mahogany  trees:  the  Central 
American  or  true  mahogany  (Swietenia  makogani)t  the  African 
mahogany  (Khaya  sencgalcnsis],  and  the  Indian  mahogany 
(Soymida  febrifngd).  There  are  also  minor  species  called 
mahoganies.* )  American  mahogany  was  originally  divided  by 
dealers  into  Spanish  and  Honduras  wood,  the  former  from  the 
then  Spanish-American  possessions.  A  considerable  supply 
now  comes  from  Mexico,  taking  name  from  port  of  shipment; 
as,  Frontera,  Laguna,  Santa  Ana,  Tecolutla,  Minatitlan,  and 
Tonala,  desirability  being  much  in  the  order  named.  The 
African  field  is  the  latest  and  probably  most  important,  very 
large  quantities  of  its  wood  being  distributed  through  English 
markets. 

(  Mahogany,  placed  among  the  second  class  of  ship-building 
woods  by  Lloyd's  Register,  was  once  used  to  some  extent  in 
place  of  oak  in  naval  architecture,  but  is  now  so  greatly  valued 
for  decoration  as  to  be  employed  for  little  else,  save  occa- 
sionally the  hulls  of  small  pleasure  craft.  The  decorative  value 
is  due  to  a  combination  of  beauty,  working  qualities,  and 
durability.  Beauty  is  influenced  by  both  grain  and  warm  red 
color.  The  latter  is  generally  light,  and  although  it  subse- 
quently darkens,  in  most  cases,  to  a  characteristic  and  rich 
reddish-brown,  is  usually  induced  immediately  by  stains.  The 
grain  is  not  only  beautiful  of  itself,  but  is  such  as  to  receive 
those  stains  and  finishing  processes  thus  demanded.  Different 
localities  produce  woods  varying  in  tint  and  grain.  Individual 

*  Mahogany  and  mountain  mahogany  are  names  applied  in  the  United  States 
to  Rhus  integrifolia,  a  native  of  Lower  California  and  the  coast  islands,  and  to 
the  following  species  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  (Idaho  to  Arizona): 
Cercocarpus  ledifolius,  Used  for  fuel. 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius,  Used  for  fuel. 

Cercocarpus  breviflorus,  Heavy,  hard,  not  common. 

124 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BR04DLE4F  WOODS.  125 

trees  also  differ  in  desirability.  No  two  are  alike.  Beautiful 
grain  effects  are  often  obtained  in  ' '  crotches  ' '  or  junctions 
between  trunk  and  branch,  and  such  pieces  bring  high  prices. 
Mahogany  is  generally  used  as  a  veneer.  Layers  are  glued 
either  to  some  central  piece  or  "  core  "  or  else  to  one  another. 
The  layers  are  arranged  so  as  to  cross  one  another's  grain, 
and  results  are  usually  thought  to  be  more  desirable  than  those 
obtained  from  solid  wood.  Few  woods  glue  better,  and  few 
shrink  or  distort  less  when  in  place.  ) 

"  Spanish  Cedar  '\Cedrela  odorata)  is  a  broadleaf  wood,  and 
not  a  conifer  as  is  usually  supposed.  It  is  nearly  related  to,  and 
usually  found  and  cut  with,  true  mahogany.  Lindley  *  divides 
Cedrelecae  into  two  sub-orders:  Swietenias,  including  the  true 
mahoganies,  and  Cedrelas,  with  nine  genera  and  twenty-five 
species  distributed  over  tropical  Asia  and  America. 

Prima  vera  or  white  mahogany  belongs  to  Bignoniaceas, 
which  also  includes  the  catalpas.  It  grows  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  associated  with  true  or  red  mahogany.  Prima 
vera  resembles  red  mahogany  even  to  the  conspicuous  pores  so 
characteristic  of  the  latter  wood.  It  differs  only  in  color,  a  light 
yellow  that  darkens  with  age.  The  characteristic  color  of 
finished  wood  is  golden  yellow.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  large 
pieces  of  Prima  vera  free  from  worm  holes.  The  wood  is  seen 
in  car  finish,  house  trim  and  fine  furniture  where  red  mahogany 
might  otherwise  be  employed. 

*  John  Lindley,  Treasury  of  Botany,  p.  243,  Part  I;  also  see  Gifford, 
"  Foresty  and  Irrigation,"  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4,  p.  174;  also  Correspondence  Messrs. 
Wm.  E.  Uptegrove  &  Brother,  New  York  City. 


Satinwood  is  hard,  heavy,  durable,  close-grained,  brittle  and  smooth  like 
boxwood.  The  pale  yellow  or  cream-colored  heartwood  has  a  peculiar,  fine, 
satin-like  appearance  when  polished.  Trees  are  not  large.  The  wood,  which  is 
very  costly  and  seldom  used  save  in  fine  cabinet  work  and  cdd  sets  of  furniture, 
is  derived  from  several  genera  and  localities.  East  Indian  satin  wood  is  from 
Chloroxylon  swietenia,*  a  relative  of  mahogany,  and  also  Maba  buxifolia,  an 
ebenacious  tree.  Bahama  satinwood  is  probably  also  from  the  genus  Maba. 
Florida  and  West  Indian  satinwood  come  from  Xanthoxylum  caribaeum.  The 
botanical  source  of  Tasmanian  satinwood  is  unknown. 

*  "Indian  Forester,"  Vol.  28,  pp.  341-343  and  410-411. 


126  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Mahogany.  Swietenia  mahogani  Jacq. 

Nomenclature. 

Mahogany  (local  and  common         Honduras    Mahogany    (Hon- 

name).  duras). 

Spanish  Mahogany  (Cuba.  San         Baywood,  Madeira,  Redwood. 

Domingo,  West  Indies). 
Mexican  Mahogany  (Frontera, 

Laguna,    Santa  Anna,    and 

other  Mexican  ports). 
Locality. 

Florida  Keys,  Bahamas,  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  America, 

Peru. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Florida  specimens  forty-five  feet  in  height  and  two  or  more  feet 
in  diameter.  Foreign  trees  larger. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light,  rich  reddish  brown.  Thin  sapwood  yellow.  Smooth, 
fine  uniform  texture,  inconspicuous  rings,  conspicuous  pores, 
sometimes  filled  with  white  substance. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  brittle,  durable,  holds  glue,  takes  stains  and  high 
polish,  small  distortion  in  seasoning,  stands  well. 

v /  Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-work,  veneers;  formerly  ship-building. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,510,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Desirability  varies  with  locality.  Spanish  mahogany  ranks  first, 
and  harder  Mexican  woods  next.  Mahogany  is  usually 
stained.  African  mahogany  is  now  successfully  rivaling  the 
American  product. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  127 

White  Mahogany.     Prima  vera.     Tabeuia  Donnell-Smithii  (Rose). 
Nomenclature. 

White  Mahogany,  Prima  vera  (local  and  common  names). 
Locality. 

Mexico  and  Central  America. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
Tall,  slender,  a  beautiful  tree.  Numerous  golden-yellow 
flowers  precede  the  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Cream-white.  Beautiful,  fine  grain,  resembles  mahogany  exactly 
save  in  color.  Conspicuous  pores. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Works  and  stands  well. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-work,  fine  furniture,  veneers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Many  twelve-foot  logs  imported  through  San  Francisco  and 
west.  Named  after  discoverer.  The  wood  of  the  butternut  or 
white  walnut  is  sometimes  sold  as  white  mahogany,  but  is 
seldom  if  ever  confused  with  the  true  wood.  Prima  vera 
is  appropriate  where  fine,  light  colored,  cheerful  effects  are 
required.  The  appearance  is  practically  identical  with  that  of 
true  mahogany,  save  in  color. 


See  Botanical  Gazette,  Vol.  XVII,  1892,  p.  418;  Contribution  U.  S.  National 
Herbarium,  p.  346,  Vol.  I,  No.  9,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Division  of  Botany. 


128  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar.    Cedrela  odorata  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar,  Cuban  Cedar  (local  and  common 
names). 

Locality. 

Mexico,  Cuba,  West  Indies. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet  in  diameter.  Pale- 
yellow  flowers.  Pods  resemble  pecan-nuts.  Tree  suggests 
English  walnut  (/.  regia). 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Brownish  red,  straight,  even,  compact  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  fragrant,  porous,  durable.  Resembles  cedar  woods  derived 
from  coniferous  trees  (page  167);  also  resembles  mahogany. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cigar-boxes,  boats,  fine  cabinet-work.  May  be  used  in  place 
of  mahogany.  The  figured  Australian  Red  Cedar  (C.  australis) 
is  locally  used  for  furniture,  joinery,  carriages,  ceilings,  door- 
frames, etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Used  for  cigar-boxes,  because  its  porous  structure  assists  cigars 
to  season,  and  its  odor  improves  their  flavor.  The  Cuban 
supply  is  practically  exhausted.  Mexico  is  now  the  chief 
American  source.  Trees  grow  rapidlv. 


The  Toon  Cedar  (Cedrela  toona  Roxburgh)  of  the  Orient  is  the  same  as  the 
Red  Cedar  (Cedrela  attslralis  F.  v.  M, )  of  Australia.  The  Cedar  (Cedrela  odorata 
Blanco}  is  thought  to  be  distinct  Philippine  species. 

"Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  p.  173,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4;  Writings  Dr.  Gifford; 
Correspondence  Wm.  E.  Uptegrove  &  Brother,  and  others. 


PLATE  25.     MAHOGANY  (Swietema  niahagoni). 


Two  Specimens  of  Wood. 


EUCALYPTUS. 

(Eucalyptus.} 

These  trees,  locally  known  as  Stringy-barks,  Ironbarks,  Ma- 
hoganies, Box  and  Gum  Trees,  are  natives  of  Australia  and  the 
neighboring  islands.  Some  species  now  grow  on  parts  of  each 
one  of  the  continents,  where  they  have  often  influenced  condi- 
tions to  a  remarkable  degree.*  Most  Eucalypts  withdraw  large 
quantities  of  water  from  the  soil,  but  their  upper  portions  re- 
quire much  warm,  dry  air  and  sunshine.  Eucalyptus  trees  have 
not  succeeded  in  the  United  States  outside  of  California,  Ari- 
zona, New  Mexico,  Texas  and  Florida,  and  their  success,  in  the 
last  three  districts  has  not  been  remarkable.  The  Eucalypts  have 
quite  changed  the  appearance  of  many  districts  in  California.! 
The  Blue  Gum  (Eucalyptus  globulus}  is  the  species  commonly 
referred  to  when  the  Eucalyptus  is  mentioned  in  North  America, 
although  other  species  have  been  successfully  acclimated. 

The  Euclypts  are  noted  for  great  size,  rapid  growth,  tough, 
durable  woods,  and  effect  upon  health. 

Size  is  illustrated  by  the  species  Eucalyptus  amygdalina,  individuals  of  which 
have  reached  a  height  of  over  four  hundred  feet  and  are  thus,  probably,  the  tallest 
although  not  the  largest  trees  known  to  man.  Development  is  shown  by  speci- 
mens of  Eucalyptus  globulus  that  have  lengthened  in  excess  of  two  feet  a  month 
during  the  first  year.J  The  working  qualities  of  Jarrah,  Karri,  Tuart  and  Red 
Gum  Woods  (E.  marginata,  E.  diversicolor,  E.  gomphocephala,  and  E.  rostrata) 
are  such  as  to  have  caused  them  to  take  high  rank  in  local  constructions.  The 
first  two  have  been  preferred  beyond  all  other  materials  for  paving  the  streets  of 
London  and  of  Paris.  Improvement  in  health  has  followed  the  introduction  of 
Blue  Gums(jE.  globulus)  in  malarial  districts,  such  as  those  around  Rome.  Such 
results  while  possibly  influenced  by  the  presence  of  medicinal  substances  in  the 
foliage  are  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  the  leaves  evaporate  unusual  quantities 
of  water  from  the  soil.  § 

*  "  Will  sensibly  affect  the  aspect  of  the  country  just  as  they  have  affected 
that  of  the  Riviera,  of  the  Campagnia,  and  of  the  Nilghiri  hills  in  South  India." 
— Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa. 

t  The  Florida  climate  is  favorable  most  but  not  all  of  the  time.  That  of 
Southern  California  and  parts  of  Arizona  is  so  equable  that  McClatchie  details 
forty-one  distinct  species  already  growing.  This  district  must  be  regarded  as  the 
only  real  American  locality  at  this  time. 

J  A  Passadena  blue  gum  was  five  feet  thick  at  the  end  of  twenty-five  years. 
Others  in  Santa  Barbara  at  the  same  age  compared  with  oaks  known  to  be  two 
hundred  or  three  hundred  years  old.  A  specimen  three  years  from  the  seed  meas- 
ured about  nine  inches  in  diameter. — McClatchie. 

§  The  writer  has  seen  long  rows  of  California  blue  gums  cut  down  because  they 
44  dried  the  soil." 

129 


130  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD, 

The  genus  may  thus  be  summarized  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  living  tree  and  from  that  of  the  wood. 

Trees  grow  rapidly;  some  grow  where  those  of  other  species  will  not;  some 
form  wind- brakes  and  forest  cover;  some  serve  in  landscape  effects;  some  afford 
honey;  *  many  yield  oils.f  The  hard  wood  timbers  present  an  unusual  range  of 
possibilities.  McClatchie  quotes  twenty-five  special  purposes  to  which  eucalyptus 
woods  have  been  applied  in  Australia.  Six  species  are  valued  for  bridge  timbers, 
five  for  piles,  nine  for  paving,  eight  for  posts,  three  for  railway  ties,  four  for  car 
building,  five  for  lumber  and  shingles,  seven  for  carriage  parts,  two  for  cooperage, 
and  two  for  handles.  The  American  demands  are  thus  far  principally  for  fuel, \ 
posts,  parts  of  farm  implements,  and  pins  for  insulators  on  long  distance  transmis- 
sion cables.  Blue  gum  piles  have  been  successfully  employed  at  Santa  Barbara 
and  Ocean-side. 

Eucalyptus  trees  are  characterized  by  leathery  evergreen 
foliage  of  many  tints,  such  as  blue,  gray  and  green.  The  leaves 
of  young  and  old  trees  sometimes  differ.  Those  of  young  blue- 
gums  are  bright  blue,  oval  and  stalkless,  while  older  leaves  have 
stems,  are  dark  green  and  sickle-shaped.  The  characteristic 
odor  is  the  only  point  in  common  between  the  young  and  old 
foliage  of  this  species.  It  may  be  added  that  the  foliage  and 
young  twigs  of  all  species  possess  a  more  or  less  pronounced 
odor  due  to  the  presence  of  oils.  The  nomenclature  is  very  con- 
fusing. There  are  eight  "iron  barks,"  nine  "red  gums,"  eleven 
"stringy-barks"  and  twelve  "blue  gums,"  so  that  botanical 
names  must  be  preferred.  Eucalyptus  refers  to  portions  of  the 
flowers  and  means  "well  concealed."  The  nearly  one  hundred 
and  fifty  species  are  all  evergreens. 

*  Trees  blossom  during  droughts  when  other  flowers  are  scarce.  Some  species 
blossom  twice  a  year.  Flowers  are  always  seen  on  some  of  the  species.  The 
Red  and  Sugar  Gums  (E.  rostrata  and  E.  corynocalyx)  are  notably  rich  in  honey. 

t  Oils  differ  with  species  and,  as  first  separated,  are  mixtures.  Six-tenths  of 
the  product  from  the  Blue  Gum  is  a  substance  known  as  Eucalyptol.  E.  citrio- 
dora  yields  a  citron-scented  oil,  E.  amygdalina  is  very  prolific. 

J  The  Blue,  Manna  and  Red  Gums  and  the  Red  Iron  Bark  are  all  systemati- 
cally cultivated  for  fuel  in  Southern  California.  Blue  Gum  and  Manna  Gum  are 
ready  for  cutting  at  the  end  of  six  or  seven  years. 


Works  of  Baron  von  Muller;  Report  J.  Ednie-Brown,  Forest  Commissioner 
Western  Australia;  Correspondence  M.  Francis  Chapman,  Esq.,  London;  The 
Forester;  Work  of  Abbot  Kinney,  Press  Baumgardt  &  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  U.  S. 
Forestry  Bulletin  No.  n.  The  useful  American  sources,  "McClatchie,  U.  S. 
Forestry  Bulletin  No.  35,"  and  Ingham,  Calif.  State  Ag.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  196, 
are  particularly  acknowledged. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  131 

Jarrah.  Eucalyptus  marginata. 

Nomenclature. 

Jarrah  (local  and  common  name). 
Mahogany  Gum  (Australia). 
Locality. 

Western  coast  of  Australia.  Some  specimens  acclimated  in 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet 
in    diameter.     Fifty   or   more    feet   to    lowest   branch.      Dull, 
sombre    appearance.       Branches    concentrated    at   top.      Few 
California  specimens  are  over  thirty  feet  in  height. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish,  resembles  mahogany,  also  Kauri  wood. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  non-absorbent,  somewhat  oily,  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil,  receives  good  polish.  Characteristic  odor,  wears 
thin  evenly,  not  easily  inflammable.  Said  to  repel  teredo  and 
termite. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Marine  work,  exposed  positions,  ship-building,  bridge  timbers, 
street-paving  (London  and  Paris). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
65  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,080,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
8900  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Chief  timber  tree  of  southwestern  Australia.  Often  confused 
with  Karri.  Muller  calls  it  the  least  inflammable  of  woods. 
Marginata  refers  to  thick-edged  leaves. 

*  Report  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 


The  Red  Mahogany  (Eucalyptus  resinifera)  has  very  limited  local  ranges. 
The  hard,  heavy,  durable,  rich-red  wood  resembles  mahogany  and  is  used  for 
shingles,  posts,  piles  and  pavings.  It  can  be  used  in  furniture. 

Manna  Gum  (E.  viminalis)  grows  very  rapidly,  but  the  wood  is  not  as 
serviceable  as  that  from  Blue  Gum.  Red  Gum  and  Blue  Gum  are  likely  to  grow 
wherever  the  Manna  gum  will  grow. 

The  Victoria  Stringy-bark  (E.  macro rhyncha)  has  a  thick,  dark-gray,  fibrous, 
durable  bark  that  is  used  in  Australia  for  roofing  out-buildings;  strings  are 
•obtained  from  it.  The  hard,  durable  wood  is  used  for  lumber,  shingles  and  fuel. 


132  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Karri.  Eucalyplus  diver sico lor. 

Nomenclature. 

Karri  (many  localities).  White  Gum  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Australia,  New  Zealand.  Some  specimens  acclimated  in  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter.  A  straight  graceful  tree,  lower  branches 
often  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  ground.  Smooth  yellow 
white  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish  brown,  fibres  interlaced,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  tough  and  elastic,  non-absorbent,  durable,  diffi- 
cult to  work,  wears  evenly,  characteristic  odor. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

.    Construction,    railway    ties,    piles,    marine    work,     pavements 
(London  and  Paris).     Masts,  lumber  (Australia). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
63  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,890,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
8000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Once  named  Eucalyptus  colossea  because  of  great  size.  Distinct 
from  Kauri  Pine  (D.  australis).  Diversicolor  refers  to  leaves 
the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  which  differ  in  color.  A  charac- 
teristic of  other  eucalypt  also. 

*  Report  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 


The  Giant  Eucalypt  or  Peppermint  Tree  (Eucalyptus  amygdalina) 
is  probably  the  tallest  of  all  trees.  The  leaves  smell  like  peppermint 
because  of  oils  that  are  often  separated  and  used  in  medicine.  The 
light  woods  are  outclassed  by  those  of  other  species. 


The  Sugar  Gum  (Eucalyptus  corynocalyx)  now  grows  thriftily  in 
California.  It  is  one  of  the  best  species  for  desert  culture.  The 
profuse  blossoms  continue  for  several  months.  The  very  hard,  durable 
woods  season  evenly,  and  have  been  used  in  wheels  and  utensils.  Trees 
are  planted  along  roads;  they  attain  heights  of  sixty  to  ninety  feet. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BR04DLE4F  WOODS.  133 

j\    Tuart.  Eucalyptus  gomphocephala. 

Nomenclature. 

Tuart    (local    and     common         Tooart  (Australia) 

T  name)/A  White  Gum  (Australia). 

Tewart  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Australia.     A  few  specimens  have  been  acclimated  in  California. 
Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  six 
feet  in  diameter.  Lower  branches  forty  or  more  feet  from 
grounJ.  Bright,  cheerful  appearance,  straight  trunk,  gray- 
white  bark.  Californian  specimens  have  reached  heighfs  of 
eighty  feet  within  twenty-four  years. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  compact  appearance,  fibres  interlaced. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very   hard,   heavy,   strong,  tough,   rigid,    durable,   seasons  well. 
Difficult  to  split  or  work.      Strength   and  durability   are  very 
pronounced.     Tuart  is  one  of  the  strongest  of  all  woods. 
X/Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Keels,  buffers,  stern-posts,  frames,  wheel-hubs,  shafts. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
67  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,300,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
9300  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Highly  prized  locally.  One  of  the  strongest  of  woods.  Gom- 
phocephala refers  to  peculiarities  in  lid  of  calyx-tube. 

The  Red  Gum  (Eucalyptus  rostrata)  is  one  of  the  leading  Australian 
species.  Baron  von  Mueller  considered  it  "  perhaps  the  most  important 
of  the  whole  genus."*  Trees  are  one  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height. 
The  wood  is  of  a  rich  red  color  that  darkens  with  age.  It  has  a  close, 
complicated  grain,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  split,  and  it  is  remarkably  uni- 
form, durable,  strong  and  hard.  Australians  use  it  for  ship-building, 
piles,  posts,  paving,  curbs,  poles,  and  house  blocks.  It  is  said  to  resist 
the  attacks  of  marine  life  and  termites.  The  flowers  yield  honey.  There 
is  a  ruby-red  exhudation  known  in  medicine  as  "  kino."  The  young  bark 
is  red,  hence  the  name  red  gum.  Rostratus  refers  to  the  beaked  flower- 
bud  coverings.  Red  gum  bids  fair  to  become  one  of  the  most  successful 
eucalypts  in  America. 

*  Report  on  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 

t  "It  is  the  tree  which  produces  directly  to  the  Colony  by  far  the  most  revenue 
of  all  our  trees." — Jos.  H.  Maiden.  Director  Botanical  Garden,  Sydney,  N.  S.  W. 


I34  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Blue  Gum,  Fever  Tree.     Eucalyptus  globulus. 

Nomenclature. 

Blue  Gum  (local  and  common         Fever  Tree  (Australia). 
name).  Balluck  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Native  of  Australia  acclimated  in  southern  California  and  else- 
where throughout  the  world. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height. 
Three  to  six  feet  in  diameter.  Loose,  shaggy,  exfoliating 
bark.*  Leaves  sometimes  twelve  inches  in  length.  Color 
varies  with  age.  Characteristic  odor. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Straw  color.    Sapwood  lighter.     Indistinct  annual  rings.     Fibres 

interlaced  so  that  it  is  hard  to  work,  particularly  when  dry. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  durable,  difficult  to  split,  particularly  when  dry. 
For  this  reason  trees  are  sawn  into  planks,  if  at  all,  as  soon  as 
they  have  been  felled.  The  green  wood  works  much  more 
easily  than  the  dry.  Blue  Gum  is  less  elastic  although  it  com- 
pares with  ash  and  hickory. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Rollers,     paving-blocks,     ship -build  ing,     fuel,    carriage-making. 
Small  pieces  boiled   in  water  and  then  in  linseed  oil  are  used 
for  insulator  pins  on  telegraph  poles,  piles  and  mine  timbers  in 
California.     A  principal  fuel  in  Southern  California. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
43  to  69  (Mueller) 
57  to  69  (Lazlett). 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 
Remarks. 

The  Eucalyptus  of  California.  The  species  planted  in  malarial 
districts.  Sanitary  powers  due  to  evaporation  from  large  leaves 
or  presence  of  essential  oils,  which  are  thought  to  have  medicinal 
qualities.  Grows  very  rapidly. 

*  The  bark  is  variable.  Some  trees  of  nearly  i  foot  diameter  have  smooth  green 
bark  resembling  that  on  young  willow  saplings;  most  others  have  the  shaggy  bark, 
while  from  some  this  has  dropped  away,  exposing  a  smooth  grayish  interior  sug- 
gesting that  of  the  sycamore.  Planted  more  widely  than  other  Eucalypts.  The 
species  used  in  malarial  districts.  The  "  Eucalyptus"  of  California;  one  of  the 
fastest  growing  trees  in  the  world.  Trees  eight  or  ten  years  old,  will,  if  cut  down, 
produce  shoots  seventy  five  to  one  hundred  feet  high  in  six  or  eight  years,  and 
cuttings  may  be  continued  indefinitely.  The  common  name  Blue  Gum  is  applied 
to  eleven  other  distinct  species,  so  that  the  botanical  name  should  never  be 
omitted.  Globulus  refers  to  the  globular  seed  cases. 


PLATE  26.     PINE  (firms). 


White  Pine  Foliage  (P.  strobe). 

White  Pine  Tree  (P.  strobus). 
(Courtt,y  At.  C.  Gtol.  Survey.) 

Hard  Pine  Wood  (P.  palustris). 

Soft  or  Sugar  Pine  Wood  (P.  lambertiana). 


lliird  1'iiK-  Trunk  (/'  patustris). 
V'kotografik  by  Edward J .  l>avito«.) 


NEEDLELEAF    WOODS. 

The  trees  affording  these  woods  cover  large  areas  in  the 
natural  forests  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  They  exist,  but 
to  an  unimportant  extent,  in  the  South.  Cedar,  larch,  and 
cypress  figure  in  ancient  history.  Pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  and 
other  so-called  soft  woods  are  of  this  group,  which  has  always 
been  important  in  the  United  States. 

Needleleaved  woods  are  characterized  by  uniform  fibre- 
conditions,  presence  of  resins,  and  lighter  weights.  The 
vertical  structure  consists  of  simple,  similar,  elongated  tubes 
or  cells,  tapering  and  finally  closing  at  their  ends,  known  as 
tracheids.  These  are  arranged  with  more  or  less  regularity, 
and  woods  are  correspondingly  easy  to  work.  Pith-rays  are 
scarcely  visible,  and  sections  do  not  show  pores.  Cavities 
known  as  resin-ducts,  and  which  are  not  real  vessels  but  rather 
simple  intercellular  spaces,  secrete  resins  so  important  in 
making  these  woods  durable  and  elastic.  There  are  exceptions, 
such  as  the  eucalyptus  and  tulip  trees ;  but  as  a  rule  the  great- 
est tree  forms  are  in  this  group,  their  trunks  affording  large 
straight  pieces  eminently  suited  for  construction.  The  prop- 
erties of  the  woods  are  such  that  they  are  preferred  in  carpen- 
try and  heavy  constructions,  the  total  requirement  has  greatly 
exceeded  that  for  hard  woods. 

The  resinous,  usually  evergreen,  leaves  and  the  cones  are 
sufficient  to  identify  these  trees.  Needleleaf,  softwood,  conif- 
erous, and  evergreen  trees  are  the  same.  The  name  evergreen 
is  not  strictly  correct,  since  some  species— larch  and  bald 
cypress — shed  their  needles  every  year. 

135 


PINE. 

(Pinus.) 

(  Pine  trees  afford  woods  that  have  been  more  used  in  carpen- 
try and  construction  than  any  others.  They  are  to  the  soft 
woods  what  the  oaks  are  to  the  hard  woods,  and  they  stand,  ai 
present,  with  reference  to  all  woods  much  as  iron  does  to  all 
metals.  Fine  is  prized  because  of  a  combination  of  strength, 
elasticity,  light  weight,  working  qualities,  and,  until  recently, 
wide  spread  availability,  such  as  fits  it  for  those  constructions  re-* 
quiring  the  largest  quantities  of  woods.  Supplies  are  diminish- 
ing  and  some  pines  are  already  practically  unattainable  in  many 
places.  Pines  are  separated  into  soft-pines  and  hard-pines.  | 

The  pines  have  smooth,  straight,  solid  trunks,  usually 
destitute  of  branches  for  many  feet  from  the  ground.  There 
are  needle-shaped,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  evergreen  leaves 
from  one  to  many  inches  in  length,  gathered  in  clusters  of 
two,  three,  or  five,  their  number  and  the  fact  that  they  are 
thus  clustered  being  important  bases  of  classification.  There 
are  also  cones  of  woody  overlapping  scales.  Pines  reproduce 
with  difficulty,*  and  mature  so  slowly  that  ultimate  survival  of 
modern  conditions  must  probably  be  as  cultivated  trees. 

Thirty-nine  of  the  seventy  known  species  of  pine  are  found 
in  the  United  States.  These  with  their  woods  are  separated 
into  two  groups  known  as  hard  and  soft  pines.  The  Dantzic 
or  Northern  pine  (Pinus  sylvestris)  is  the  principal  European 
species. 

*  The  roots  of  most  species  die  with  cutting  of  trees.  There  is  no  power  of 
producing  new  shoots.  (The  pitch  pine  (Pinus  rigida)  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.) 
Seeds  also  have  short-lived  vitality.  Trees  are  easily  raised  from  fresh  seeds. 

136 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  137 


SOFT-PINE. 


Soft-pine  is  soft,  clean,  light,  uniform,  easily  worked,  not 
strong,  free  from  knots  and  resins,  and  is  yet  obtainable  in  large 
and  perfect  pieces.  The  wood  is  whitish  and  the  yearly  rings 
are  not  pronounced.  The  supply  is  divided,  as  obtained  from 
the  white  pine  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  the  sugar-pine  and 
all  other  species  on  the  other. 

White  pine  (Pinus  strobus]  grows  in  the  north,  central, 
and  eastern  United  States  and  was  formerly  the  important  tree 
of  North  America.  It  emphasized  the  forest  industries  of 
Maine  and  Michigan,  and  methods  connected  with  harvesting 
it  have  influenced  logging  practices  in  many  fields.  It  was 
long  the  only  softwood  seriously  considered  by  Northern 
lumbermen.  Thirty  per  cent  of  the  sawn  timber  and  lumber 
used  in  this  country  in  1899  was  drawn  from  this  species.*  No 
wood  known  to  man  can  apply  in  more  places  than  white  pine. 
There  are  no  perfect  eastern  substitutes,  but  spruce,  fir,  and 
even  whitewood  are  thus  employed.  Sugar  pine  and  redwood 
are  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  eastern  pine  has  never 
seriously  competed. 

The  Sugar  Pine  (Pinus  lambertiana)  of  the  Western  States 
is  a  tree  growing  at  high  elevations  and  is  so  large  as  to  take 
rank  with  the  redwoods  and  other  of  the  world's  greatest  trees. 
The  tree  produces  a  clean,  soft,  coarse  wood  that  is  upon  the 
whole  the  best  present  substitute  for  true  white  pine.  The 
geographical  range  of  the  tree,  is,  however,  such  as  to  limit  the 
widest  present  usefulness  of  the  woods. 

Among  other  minor  American  sources  are  White  Pine  (P. 
flexilis),  Rocky  Mountain  Region;  White  or  Silver  Pine  (P. 
monticola),  Pacific  Coast  Region;  Whitebark  Pine  (P.  albi- 
caulis),  Pacific  Coast  Region;  Mexican  White  Pine  (P.  strobi- 
formis},  Arizona  into  Mexico;  Parry's  Pine  (P.  quadrifolia), 
Southern  California;  Nut  Pine  (P.  cembroides],  Arizona  into 
Mexico. 

*  Roth,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  73. 

"  White  Pine  Timber  Supplies."     U.  S.  S.  Doc.  55-1,  Vol.  IV. 


j38  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


HARD-PINE. 

Ordinary  hard-pine  differs  from  soft-pine  in  that  it  is  hard, 
resinous,  heavy,  harder  to  work,  and  very  strong.  It  also  is  ob- 
tainable in  large  pieces.  The  orange-yellow  wood  is  more  or  less 
figured.  The  annual  deposits  are  pronounced  and  are  separated 
into  two  sharply  divided  rings.  The  supply  is  chiefly  derived 
from  the  longleaf,  shortleaf,  Cuban,  and  loblolly  pines  of  the 
South  Atlantic  States. 

The  longleaf  pine  (Pinus  palustris)  is  distinctly  the  most 
important  of  its  group.  The  wood  is  ideal  for  heavy*  construc- 
tions. Beams,  docks,  trestles,  and  frames  of  cars  are  formed 
of  it.  The  trees  afford  the  greater  bulk  of  turpentine,  tar,  and 
resin,  or  "  naval  stores,"  produced  in  this  country.*  Cuban, 
shortleaf,  and  loblolly  pine  woods  (P.  hcterophylla,  P. 
echinata,  and  P.  tceda}  are  nearly  similar.  Longleaf  and 
Cuban  pines  are  seldom  separated,  while  shortleaf  and 
loblolly  pines  are  also  mixed.  Longleaf  pine  usually  affords 
finer  structure  and  more  heartwood  than  Cuban  pine. 
Strength  and  weight  averages  of  both  woods  are  in  excess  of 
those  of  shortleaf  and  loblolly  pines.  No  method  of  invariably 
telling  these  four  woods  apart  has  as  yet  been  determined. 
(Roth.)  Any  or  all  of  them  are  practically  liable  to  be 
delivered  in  response  to  a  demand  for  Southern  pine.  Johnson 
considers  shortleaf  pine  as  good  as  longleaf  pine  of  equal 
weight,  and  suggests  environment  as  a  means  of  identification. 

Palustris,  signifying  "swampy,"  is  misleading,  since 
long  leaf  pine  prefers  dry,  sandy  soil  and  tracts  known  as 
"pine  barrens."  Mitis  refers  to  the  soft,  delicate  foliage  of 
shortleaf  pine.  Tada  signifies  "torch."  The  trees  maybe 
told  by  differences  in  their  leaves  and  cones. 

*  Manufacture  of  tar,  pitch,  etc.  (See  Report  Chief  U.  S.  Div.  Forestry, 
1892,  p.  356  ;  also  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  13.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 


139 


Names. 

•  Leaves. 

Cones. 

Number  in 
Cluster. 

Length. 

Diameter 
(open). 

Length. 

Longleaf  (P.  palustris)  

3 
2  or  3 
2  or  3 
3 

10  to  15  in. 
8  to  12    " 
2  to  5     " 
5  to  10  " 

4  to  5  in. 

3  to  5   " 

I  to  2    " 

2  to  3  " 

6  to  10  in. 

4  to    7   " 

2                 " 

3  to    4  " 

Cuban  (P.  heterophylla)  
Shortleaf  (P.  echinata)  
Loblolly  (P  ttzda) 

Hard  pine  is  practically  the  strongest  building  wood  com- 
monly obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces  in  the  United  States. 
Trees  are  usually  cut  down  after  having  been  tapped  for  two  or 
three  years.  The  Douglas  Spruce  or  "  Oregon  Pine  "  (Pseu- 
dotsuga  taxifolia),  supplies  much  of  the  "hard  pine"  used  on 
the  Pacific  Coast. 

Tar,  turpentine,  resin  and  similar  products  included  within  the  term 
"naval  stores,"  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  Longleaf  and  Cuban  pines. 
This  industry  is  one  of  the  leading  ones  in  the  South  Atlantic  States.  It 
used  to  be  thought  that  the  tapping  or  "bleeding"  to  which  the  trees 
were  subjected,  might  influence  the  subsequent  strength  and  durability 
of  their  woods,  and  so  firm  was  this  belief,  that  specfications  often  ex- 
cluded "  bled"  lumber.  Since  most  lumber  has  been  "bled"  and  since 
mill  men  make  no  attempt  to  separate  the  "bled"  from  the  "unbled" 
woods,  some  trouble  has  arisen.*  An  exhaustive  investigation  f  proved 
that  strength,  weight  and  shrinkage  are  not  influenced  by  bleeding,  and 
that  "  bled  "  is  as  good  as  "  unbled  "  lumber.  The  quantities  of  resin 
contained  in  hard  pine  vary  greatly.  Similar  trees  differ  widely  in  this 
respect.  The  resin  in  heartwood  varies  between  five  and  twenty  per  cent, 
of  dry  weight.  Sapwood  is  much  leaner,  and  since  bleeding  principally 
effects  sapwood,  durability  as  well  as  strength  is  not  influenced  to  any 
very  great  extent.  Pine  resin  is  called  rosin.  The  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroad  originally  specified  "unbled"  lumber.  Some  "  bled  "  lumber 
was  erroneously  included  and  the  mill  offered  to  take  it  back  if  it  could 
be  separated  from  the  rest.  As  the  railway  engineers  were  unable  to 
distinguish  it,  the  matter  was  dropped. 

A  confusion  exists  in  the  names  of  the  pines.  All  South- 
ern pines  are  commercially  known  as  yellow  pines.  American 
white  pine  is  known  in  Europe  as  Yellow  Pine,  and  all  hard 
pines  are  often  there  referred  to  as  pitch  pines.  Spruce  Pine, 
Bull  Pine  and  Bastard  Pine  are  names  frequently  used  to  hide 
ignorance.  The  species  palustris  has  thirty  local  names.  Bo- 
tanical names  should  be  used  to  describe  the  pines.  

*  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  8. 

t  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletins  Nos.  8  and  10. 


140  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Pine.  Pinus  sirobus  Linn. 

Nomenclature.     (Sud  worth.) 

White  Pine   (local  and  com-         Soft  Pine  (Pa.). 

mon  name).  Northern  Pine  (N.  C). 

Weymouth       Pine       (Mass.,         Spruce  Pine  (Tenn.). 

S.  C.).  Pumpkin  Pine. 
Locality.  Pattermaker's  Pine. 

North-central  and  northeastern  United  States,  northward  into 
Canada,  southward  to  Illinois,  and  along  the  Alleghanies  into 
Georgia,  intermittently. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  Three  to 
six  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Erect  impressive 
form.  Tufts  of  five  soft,  slender,  evergreen  leaves  in  long 
sheath.  Cones  four  to  six  inches  long,  one  inch  thick, 
slightly  curved. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  cream-white,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  straight 
grain.  Compact  structure.  Comparatively  free  from  knots 
and  resin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  uniform,  seasons  well,  easy  to  work,  nails  without  splitting, 
fairly  durable.  Lightest  and  weakest  of  eastern  United 
States  pines.  Shrinks  less  than  other  pines.  Paints  welL 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  matches,  spars,  boxes,  numerous  uses. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

24  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

24. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,390,000  (average  of  130  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,210,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900  (average  of  120  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

8900. 

Remarks. 

Formerly  the  chief  lumber  tree  of  the  United  States.  The 
supply  is  rapidly  diminishing.  See  remarks,  next  page. 

*  See  page  8. 

The  White  Pine."     Spauldmg.  U.  S   Forestry  Bui.  No.  22. 
White  Pme  "    a  Study.     Mr.  Gifford  Pmchot.     (Century  Co. ) 
White  Pme  Timber  Supplies."     U.  S.  Doc.  40  Senate,  55-1,  Vol.  IV. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  141 

White  Pine.  Pinus  flexilis  James. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Pine  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Utah,  Bull  Pine  (Col.). 

Col.,  N.  M.).  Western  and  Rocky  Mountain 
Pine  (Utah,  Mont.).  White  Pine  (Cal.). 

Limber  Pine.  Limber-twig  Pine. 

Rocky  Mountain  Pine.  Arizona  Flexilis  Pine. 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Montana  to  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Tufts  of  five  rather  short,  rigid  leaves  in  sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light,  clear  yellow,  turning  red  from  exposure. 
Sapwood  nearly  white.  Close-grained,  compact  structure, 
numerous  and  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft.  Saws,  plains,  nails  and  paints  well.  Fairly  durable, 
similar  to  Pinus  strobus. 

x  Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
s,  Construction.     Similar  to  Pinus  strobus. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8800. 

Remarks. 

This  tree  forms  mountain  forests  of  considerable  extent.  Valued 
locally.  All  White  Pine  is  quite  durable  even  in  exposed  posi- 
tions. White  Pine  stumps  (notably  Pinus  strobus)  outlast 
those  of  oak  and  many  other  harder  woods.  It  often  happens 
that  settlers  do  not  attempt  to  remove  hard  wood  stumps, 
knowing  that  they  will  soon  rot  out,  but  pine  stumps  are  best 
removed  at  once.  White  Pine  sidewalks  are  very  satisfactory, 
but  the  wood  serves  best  when  painted  or  in  interiors. 


142  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Sugar  Pine.  Pinus  lamberliana  Dougl. 

t  Nomenclature.      (Sud worth.) 

Sugar  Pine  (local   and   com-  Little  or  Great  Sugar  Pine. 

mon  name).  Gigantic  Pine. 

Big  Pine,  Shade  Pine  (Cal.).  White  Pine. 

Locality. 

Oregon  and  California.  Best  at  high  altitudes  (above  4000 
feet),  central  and  northern  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  occasionally  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  fifteen 
to  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Cones  ten  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length,  edible  seeds.  Sweetish  exudations.  A 
great  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  pinkish  brown,  sapwood  cream-white.  Coarse, 
straight-grained,  compact  structure.  Satiny,  conspicuous  resin 
passages. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  easily  worked,  resembles  white  pine  (Pinus  sirobus). 

^  Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  interior  finish,  doors,  blinds,  sashes,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

22. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,120,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 
Remarks. 

Grows  at  as  high  elevations  as  five  thousand  feet  or  more  above 
tide-water.  Forms  extensive  forests  with  Balsam  Fir 
(Abies  concolor).  This,  the  grandest  tree-form  of  the  genus, 
may  be  grouped,  as  to  size,  with  Common  Redwoods  and  other 
giant  growths.  The  immense  cones,  sometime?  exceeding 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  hang  from  the  ends  of  the  branches 
and  are  very  striking.  The  sugar-like  exudations  form  an 
active  purgative  known  as  "American  false  manna,"  and  con- 
tains a  peculiar  saccharine  principle  known  as  pinite. 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS,  143 

White  Pine.  Pinus  monticola  Dougl. 

Nomenclature.  (Sudworth.) 

White     Pine  (Cal.,     Nev.,          Little  Sugar   Pine,  Soft  Pine 

Ore£-)-  (Cal.). 
Mountain  Pine,  Finger  Cone         Western  White  Pine. 

Pine  (Cal.).  Mountain  Weymouth  Pine. 
Silver  Pine. 

Locality. 

Montana,  Idaho,  Pacific  States,  and  British  Columbia. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Foliage  resembles,  but  is  denser 
than,  white  pine.  Long  smooth  cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  sapwood  nearly  white.     Straight- 
grained,  compact,  suggests  white  pine  (Pinus  strobus]. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

24. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8600. 
Remarks. 

Found  at  elevations  of  seven  thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet. 
Common  and  locally  used  in  northern  Idaho. 


The  Lodgepole  Pine  (Pinus  murrayand)  also  called  Tamarack,  Tama- 
rack Pine,  Murray  Pine,  .as  well  as  Prickly,  Black  and  White  Spruce,  is 
distributed  from  Alaska  to  California  and  New  Mexico.  Trees  are  often 
at  altitudes  of  6,000  to  11,000  feet.  The  remarkably  tall,  slender  trunks 
lend  themselves  to  ties,  posts  and  poles.  The  light,  straight-grained 
woods  are  hard  to  season,  but  easy  to  work.  Trees  are  sensitive  to  fires 
which,  however,  do  not  normally  kill  seeds.  The  species  re-establishes 
itself  repeatedly  after  fires. — Also  see  Erickson,  Forestry  and  Irrigation,  p.  503, 
I9°4-  

The  Spruce  Pine  (Pinus  glabra)  is  the  least  common  of  the  Jower 
Southern  States  pines.  It  seldom  forms  pure  forests  and  is  of  relatively 
small  commercial  importance.  The  wood  resembles  that  from  the  Lob- 
lolly Pine.  The  name  Spruce  Pine  is  popularly  applied  to  trees  of  ten 
other  American  species  (Sudworth)  two  of  which  are  not  pines. 


144  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Georgia  Pine,  Hard  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Longleaf  Pine. 

Pinus  palustris  Mill. 
Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Turpentine  Pine.  Florida  Pine. 

Rosemary  Pine.  Florida  Longleaved  Pine. 

N.  Carolina  Pitch  Pine.  Southern  Pitch  Pine. 

Southern  Pine.  Southern  Hard  Pine. 

Longleaved  Yellow  Pine.  Southern  Heart  Pine. 

Longleaved  Pitch  Pine.  Southern  Yellow  Pine. 

Long  Straw  Pine.  Georgia  Pitch  Pine. 

Pitch  Pine.  Georgia  Longleaved  Pine. 

Fat  Pine.  Georgia  Heart  Pine. 

Heart  Pine.  Georgia  Yellow  Pine. 

Brown  Pine.  Texas  Yellow  Pine. 

Florida  Yellow  Pine.  Texas  Longleaved  Pine. 

Locality. 

South  Atlantic   and   Gulf  States,   Virginia  to  Alabama,   inter- 
mittently. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  ninety  feet  or  more  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Tufts  of  three  leaves,  ten  to  fifteen  inches  long,  in 
long  sheath. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  orange,  sapwood   lighter.     Compact  structure,  con- 
spicuous medullary  rays.     Fine  and  even  appearance  in  cross- 
section,  quite  uniform,  narrow  annual  rings  (20  or  25  per  inch). 
Wide  sapwood  in  young  trees. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  tough, 'elastic,  durable,  resinous.     The  strongest  and 

stiffest  of  Pines. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  constructions,   ship-building,   cars,   docks,   beams,  ties, 

flooring,  house-trim,  many  uses. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
38  (U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry).* 
43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,070,000  (average  of  1230  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

2,  I  IO,OOO. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,600  (average  of  1160  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
16,300. 
Remarks. 

Finer  and  has  less  sapwood  than  Cuban  pine.  One  of  the  bes: 
woods  for  car-building.  Principal  lumber  tree  of  the  South- 
east. 

*  See  p;tge  8. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  145 

Cuban  Pine.  Pinus  heterophylla  Sudw. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Cuban  Pine,  Slash  Pine  (local         Swamp  Pine  (Fla     Miss  ) 

and  common  names).  Bastard   Pine,   Meadow  Pine 

Pitch    Pine,     She    Pine,    She  Spruce  Pine 

Pitch  Pine  (Ga.,  Fla.). 
Locality. 

Coast  region,  South  Carolina  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Resembles  loblolly  pine.  Dark  straw  with  tinge  of  flesh  color. 
Variable  and  coarse  appearance  in  cross  section.  Annual  rings 
are  usually  wide  (10  or  20  per  inch). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Similar   to   those   of   longleaf   and  of    selected  pieces  of  loblolly 

pine.     Sometimes  more  resinous  than  longleaf  pine. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  longleaf  pine,  from  which  it  is  seldom  separated. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,370,000  (average  of  410  tests  by  U.  S.  Div.  of  Forestry).* 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,600  (average  of  410  tests  by  U.  S.  Div.  of  Forestry).* 
Remarks 

Resembles  and  is  marked  longleaf  pine  (Pinus  palustris),  no 
distinction  being  made  in  the  lumber.  The  Cuban  Pine 
supplies  large  pieces  of  perfect  wood,  thus  rivaling  Loblolly 
Pine  (Pinus  toeda)  with  which  it  has  probably  been  confused. 
The  structure  of  the  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  Loblolly 
Pine.  Trees  reproduce  rapidly,  those  forty  years  old  are  often 
large  enough  to  be  tapped ;  this  is  important,  because  of 
the  fact  that  Longleaf  Pine  from  which  "naval  stores"  are 
principally  obtained  is  being  destroyed  so  rapidly.  The  very 
heavy,  fresh  wood  shrinks  considerably,  although  with  small 

-  injury,  during  seasoning.  The  Cuban  Pine  grows  in  the  sub- 
tropical regions  of  the  United  States  and  in  Hondurus  and 
Cuba,  whence  the  name. 


*  See  page  8. 


I46  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

_..          (  Pinus  echinala  Mill. 
Shortleaf  Pme,  Yellow  Pine.      pimu  ^  Mlchx 


pimu  ^  Mlchx 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Common  Yellow  Pine,  Hard         Rosemary  Pine  (N.  C.). 

Pine.  Virginia  Yellow  Pine. 

Spruce    Pine     (Del.,     Miss.,          North  Carolina  Yellow  Pine. 

Ark.).  North  Carolina  Pine. 

Bull  Pine  (Va.).  Carolina  Pine. 

Shortshat  Pine  (Del.).  Slash  Pine. 

Pitch  Pine  (Mo.).  Old  Field  Pine. 

Poor  Pine  (Fla.  ). 
Shortleaved       Yellow      Pine 

(N.  C.). 
Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Kansas  and 

Texas. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  sometimes  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  sometimes 
four  feet  in  diameter.  A  large  erect  tree;  small  cones  have 
minute  weak  prickles.  Leaves  usually  in  twos  from  long 
sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  and  loblolly  pines.     Variable  appearance  in 

cross  section,  wide  annual  rings  near  heart. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  usually  hard,  tough,  strong,  durable,  resinous,  lighter 

than  longleaf  and  loblolly  pines. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  construction,  similar  to  longleaf  pine. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
32  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
30. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,680,000  (average  of  330  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
1,950,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,  100  (average  of  330  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

14,700. 
Remarks. 

Affords  considerable  pitch  and  turpentine,  and  is  the  principal 
species  of  Northern  Arkansas,  Kansas,  and  Missouri. 

*  See  page  8. 

Southern  Pine."     Mohr  U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  12. 
Timber  Pines  of  Southern  States."     U.   S.   Forestry  Bui.  No.  13.    (Mohr.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF   WOODS.  147 

Loblolly  Pine.  Pinus  tceda  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Old  Field  Pine.  Sap  Pine. 

Torch  Pine.  Meadow  Pine. 

Rosemary  Pine.  Cornstalk  Pine  (Va.). 

Slash  Pine.  Black  Pine. 

Longshat  Pine.  Foxtail  Pine. 

Longshucks.  Indian  Pine. 

Black  Slash  Pine.  Spruce  Pine. 

Frankincense  Pine.  Bastard  Pine. 

Shortleaf  Pine.  Yellow  Pine. 

Bull  Pine.  Swamp  Pine. 

Virginia  Pine.  Longstraw  Pine. 

-r        j-.  North  Carolina  Pine. 

Delaware  to  Florida  and  westward  intermittently  to  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  sometimes 
four  feet  in  thickness.  Leaves  in  twos  and  threes.  Scales  or 
cones  have  short  straight  spines.  A  large  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Resembles  longleaf  pine,  but  is  variable.  Coarse  cross  sections. 
Very  wide  annual  rings  (3  to  12  per  inch). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Resembles  shortleaf  pine.     Selected  pieces  rank  with  longleaf  pine. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Used  with  other  Southern  pines,  inferior  in  uniformity,  strength 
and  durability. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

33  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

33- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,050,000  (average  of  660  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,300  (average  of  650  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
12,500. 

Remarks. 

Grows  naturally  on  deforested  land,  whence  the  name  of  Olc 
Field  Pine.  A  source  of  abundant  and  cheap  material.  A 
vigorous,  prolific  grower,  probably  one  of  the  pines  of  the  future. 

*  See  page  8. 


1 48  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

yf     Bull  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Western  Yellow  Pine. 

Pin  us  ponder osa  Laws. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Big  Pine.  Heavy-wooded  Pine, 

Longleaved  Pine.  Western  Pitch  Pine. 

Red  Pine.  Heavy  Pine  (Calif.). 

Pitch  Pine.  Foothills  Yellow  Pine. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine.  Montana  Black  Pine. 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains,  westward  intermittently  to  Pacific  Ocean. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  six 
to  sometimes  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  Thick,  deeply  furrowed 
bark.  Leaves  in  tufts  of  threes. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood  is  light  red,   sapwood    nearly  white.      Rather 

coarse  grain,  compact  structure. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  brittle,  not  durable. 

'V'"     Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  railway  ties,  mine  timbers,  fuel,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,260,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

Ponderosa,  signifying  "heavy,"  refers  to  great  size.  Trees  are 
often  killed  by  beetles  (Dendroctonus  ponderosce)  and  the  wood 
of  such  trees  later  assumes  a  bright  blue  color,  due  to  fungi 
introduced  or  enabled  by  the  beetles.  These  "  blue  woods " 
can  be  used  for  some  purposes.  (Also  see  von  Schrenk,  U.  S. 
Bureau  Plant  Industry  No.  36.) 

Pond  Pine  (Pinus  serotina)  is  the  Marsh  Pine  of  the  woodsman,  but  it 
is  not  distinguished  at  the  mills  where  it  really  furnishes  much  of  the 
lumber  that  is  marked  North  Carolina  Pine.  The  Pond  Pine  grows 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  Albermarle  Sound  south  to  Florida.  It  is 
almost  constantly  in  sight  of  the  railway  trains.  The  six  or  eight  inch 
long  leaves  are  in  tufts  of  three.  The  cones  sometimes  remain  on  the 
trees  for  several  years.  The  trees  are  now  bled  for  turpentine.  Other 
names  are  Meadow,  Loblolly,  Spruce,  Bastard,  and  Bull  Pine.  (Also  see 
Roth  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  13.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  149 

Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine.     Pinus  resmosa  Ait. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine  (local         Hard  Pine  (Wis  ) 

and  common  names).  Canadian  Red  Pine  (Eng  ) 

Locality. 

Southern    Canada,    northern    United    States    from    Maine   to 

Minnesota,  Pennsylvania. 
Features  of  Tree. 

SiX^yA°  uinety  feet  in  height'   one  to  three  feet  in  diameter 
Reddish  blossoms  and  bark  on  branchlets.     Leaves  in  twos 
from  long  sheaths.      A  tall,  straight  tree. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood  light  red,  sapwood  yellow  to  white.     Numerous 
pronounced  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  elastic,  not  durable,  resinous. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Piles,  telegraph  poles,  masts,  flooring,  and  wainscoting. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

31  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

30. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,620,000  (average  of  100  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Division).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9, 100  (average  of  95  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes  commercially  handled  with  white  pine.  Unimpor- 
tant as  regards  turpentine  and  resin,  in  spite  of  specific  name, 
which  signifies  resinous.  Long  sheaths  enable  children  to 
make  chains  of  leaves. 

*  Fee  page  8. 

The  Monterey  Pine  (Pinus  radiata)  is  best  developed  near  Monterey, 
California,  where  it  is  often  100  feet  high,  symmetrical  or  distorted  ac- 
cording to  exposure.  It  is  widely  transplanted  for  landscape  effects.  The 
wood  is  occasionally  cut  into  lumber. 

The  Digger,  Grayleaf,  Gray  or  Sabine  Pine  (Pinus  sabiniana)  of  north- 
ern and  central  Californian  foothills  affords  a  poor  and  seldom-used  wood. 
The  nuts  were  prized  by  Digger  Indians,  whence  the  name.  The  tree- 
form  is  unusual;  trunks  are  forked  or  divided,  and  the  sparse  grayish 
foliage  is,  for  the  most  part,  near  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  tree  yields 
a  turpentine  used  in  medicine.  (See  "  abietene,"  U.  S.  Dispensatory.) 

The  Scrub  or  Jack  Pine  (Pinus  divaricata)  of  the  North  Central  and 
Atlantic  States  yields  a  wood  classed  among  lighter  "hard  pines"  and 
chiefly  used  for  ties  and  fuel.  The  species  is  hardy  in  some  semi-arid 
regions  where  other  pines  will  not  grow.  The  Scrub  or  Jersey  Pine  (Pinus 
virginiana)  grows  from  Manhattan  Island  south  and  west  to  Alabama  and 
Tennessee.  The  inferior  wood  is  used  for  fuel,  water  pipe  and  coarse 
lumber. 


150  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Pitch  Pine.  Pinus  rigida  Mill. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Pitch  Pine  (local  and  common         Yellow  Pine  (Pa.). 

name).  Black  Pine  (N.  C.). 

Longleaved  Pine,    Longschat         Black  Norway  Pine. 

Pine  (Del. ).  Rigid  Pine,  Sap  Pine. 

Hard  Pine  (Mass.). 
Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Georgia,  Kentucky. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  sometimes  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  sometimes 
three  feet  in  diameter.  Rigid  flattened  leaves  in  threes  from 
short  sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  thick  sapwood  yellow  to  nearly 
white.  Coarse  conspicuous  grain,  compact  structure,  very 
resinous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Coarse  lumber,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

32. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks. 

Rigida  refers  to  rigid  leaves.     The  name  "  Pitch  Pine  "  is  some- 
times applied  to  all  of  the  Southern  pines.     The  name  is  yet 
more  widely  applied    in   foreign    markets.      Sometimes  called 
Fat  Pine.     The  tree  is  hardy.      It  sometimes  grows  on  rocks 
and  sometimes  over  sea  sands,  binding  them  together.      It  will 
survive  occasional  overflows  of  sea  water.      Resins  present  to 
saturation,  injure  wood  for  constructions,  while  not  themselves 
so  good  as  resins  from  other  species.     Young  trees  sprout  from 
stumps  but  do  not  always  live  long.     The  resr.tance  to  forest 
fires  is  surprisingly  great. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  151 

Northern  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Dantzic  Pine.    Pinus  sylvesiris  Linn. 
Nomenclature. 

Dantzic    Fir    (from    place  of         Stettin    Fir    (from   place    of 

shipment).  shipment). 

Rigi  Fir  (from  place  of  ship-         Swedish  Fir. 

ment).  Scots  or  Scottish  Fir. 

Memel    Fir    (from    place    of         Northern  Fir. 

shipment).  Redwood,  Yellowwood. 

Deal  (Local). 
Locality. 

Widespread  in  Europe,  as  Scotland,  Germany,  and  Russia;  also 
Asia.  Naturalized  in  United  States. 

Features  of  Tree, 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet  in  diameter; 
sometimes  larger. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  white  to  yellowish  white,  sapwood  similar. 
Even  straight  grain  (varies  with  locality). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately  light,  hard,  tough,  and  elastic,  easily  worked  (varies 
with  locality). 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  planks,  beams,  masts,  heavy  timber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
34  (Lazlett  *)  (varies  with  locality). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,680,000  (Lazlett)  (varies  with  locality). 
1,800,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7000  (Thurston)  (varies  with  locality). 

Remarks. 

Principal  soft  wood  of  Europe.  Widely  distributed;  local 
peculiarities  once  thought  to  denote  different  species.  Fields 
tributary  to  Dantzic  and  Rigi  afford  best  wood.  Wood 
"  equal  to  Dantzic  Fir  "  sometimes  specified.  The  best  European 
equivalent  for  White  Pine  is  the  Stone  Pine  (Pinus  cenbra)y 
said  to  best  developed  in  Switzerland.  It  affords  a  smooth, 
fine-grained  wood  that  is  often  seen  in  carving.  The  Bhotan 
Pine  (Pinus  excelsa)  of  the  Himalayan  region  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative in  Asia.  This  wood  resembles  true  white  pine  very 
closely,  and  the  trees  are  similar  in  size  and  habit. 

*  Table  CLXVII,  p.  418. 


KAURI  PINE. 
(Dammar  a.) 

This  New  Zealand  tree  affords  an  excellent  substitute  for 
northern  pine.  Although  not  true  pine,  it  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  pine  and  other  conifers.  The  light,  strong, 
durable,  elastic  wood  is  obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces  suit- 
able for  masts.  The  tree  is  described  as  tall  and  very  hand- 
some. The  tough  leather-like  leaves,  about  one  inch  in  length, 
suggest  those  of  the  box.  Fresh  exudations  resemble  ven  ice- 
turpentine.  A  fossil  found  on  Martha's  Vineyard  has  been  quite 
positively  identified  as  that  of  a  Kauri  Pine  tree. 

This  species  is  universally  noted  for  a  resin  that  possesses 
the  quality  of  uniting  with  linseed  oil  more  perfectly  at  lower 
temperatures  than  most  others  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnish.  Kauri  resin  is  thus  one  of  the  most  valuable  constitu- 
ents of  good  varnish,  and  has  sold  for  as  much  as  one  thousand 
dollars  to  fifteen  hundred  dollars  a  ton.  The  best  resin  occurs 
as  a  fossil,  and  is  collected  by  digging  over  areas  known  to 
be  fruitful,  but  from  which  trees  have  long  since  disappeared. 
The  deposits  of  resins  exist  a  few  feet  below  the  surface.  The 
pieces,  which  vary  in  size  from  small  pebbles  to  lumps  as  large 
as  eggs,  are  scraped  or  otherwise  cleansed  by  natives  in  the 
field.  One  mass  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  weight 
has  been  reported.*  There  are  also  fresh-product  and  semi- 
fossil  resins. 


*This  large  mass  is  mentioned  by  R.  Ingham  Clark,  F.R.G.S.,  in  "Notes 
on  Fossil  Resins,"  published  by  C.  Letts  &  Co.,  London. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEJF   MODS. 

\  Kauri  Pine.  Dammar  a  australis. 

Nomenclature. 

Kauri    pme    (local   and   gen.         Cowdie    p.ne 

and  many  localities). 
Locality. 

New  Zealand. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred   feet  in    height,   three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,   occasional  specimens    much    larger     Small    leaves 
resembling  those  of  box.     A  tall  handsome  tree. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  straw-colored,  fine,  straight  grain,  with  silky  lustre 
suggesting  satmwood.  "  Mottled  kauri  "  is  separated  and  used 
for  cabinet  work. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately    hard,    light,    elastic,    strong,    seasons    well,    works 
readily,  receives  high  polish,  is  quite  free  from  knots,  it  stands 
well,  wears  evenly,  and  has  an  agreeable  odor. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Carpentry,  masts. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
33  (Lazlett  *)  (varies  with  locality). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,810,000  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The  species  is  widely  known  by  reason  of  its  resin. 

*  Table  CLXXI,  p.  426. 


A  true  gum  dissolves  in  water,  whereas  a  true  resin  yields  to  oil  or 
spirit.  The  name  resin  is  seldom  used  by  varnish  makers,  and  the  name 
gum  applies  commercially  tt>  many  substances  that  are  actually  resins. 
Varnish  resins  may  be  roughly  divided  as  they  unite  with  oil  or  spirit. 
Oil  varnish  differs  from  spirit  varnish  in  that  oil  takes  permanent  place  as 
part  of  the  whole,  whereas  spirit  simply  dissolves  the  varnish  ingredients 
and  then  evaporates  from  them.  Kauri  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  oil- 
varnish  resins.  Shellac  is  an  equally  useful  spirit-varnish  resin.  A 
varnish  differs  from  a  paint  in  that  a  varnish  is  a  solution,  whereas  a 
paint  is  a  mechanical  mixture. 


SPRUCE. 

(Picea.} 

The  spruces  form  forests  in  Europe  and  North  America. 
The  black  spruce  (P.  nigrd)  and  the  white  spruce  (P.  alba) 
predominate  in  eastern  United  States,  while  the  white  spruce 
(P.  engclmanni}  is  important  in  the  West.  The  Norway 
spruce,  or  white  fir  (P.  cxcelsa),  is  the  chief  European  species. 
American  trees  prefer  Northern  ranges  characterized  by  short 
summers  and  long  winters.  The  red  spruce  (Picea  rubens)  is  now, 
by  reason  of  the  diminution  of  the  supply  of  white  pine  in  north- 
ern New  England,  the  most  important  timber  tree  of  that  district. 

The  soft,  clean,  light,  close-grained,  satiny  woods  resemble, 
and  are  the  best  Eastern  substitutes  for,  white  pine.  Spruce  is 
the  principal  structural  wood  in  many  places  in  New  England.- 
It  is  also  used  for  paper  pulp.  The  valuable  western  spruces 
are  less  familiar  because  of  their  distances  from  the  best  markets 
and  because  of  other  woods  for  which  considerable  demands 
have  already  been  established.  The  eastern  product  is  divided 
commercially  and  according  to  appearance,  but  irrespective  of 
species,  into  white  and  black  spruce.  These  terms  depend  some- 
times, at  least,  on  the  wide  and  narrow  rings  of  the  black  spruce 
(P.  nigra).  It  should  be  remembered  that  spruce  and  fir  woods 
are  often  confused  with  one  another,  and  that  there  are  trees,  as 
the  Douglas  spruce  and  Kauri  pine  or  spruce,  that  are  called,  but 
are  not,  true  spruces.  European  spruce  is  often  locally  known 
as  white  deal. 

Spruce  trees  have  single,  sharp-pointed,  short  leaves, 
pointing  everywhere,  and  keeled  above  and  below  so  as  to 
appear  four-sided;  the  cones  hang  down.  Spruce  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pines,  firs,  and  hemlocks  by  the  fact  that 
pine  leaves  are  longer  and  in  clusters,  that  hemlock  leaves  are 
flat,  blunt,  and  two-ranked,  and  that  fir  cones  point  upward. 
The  genus  picea  has  twelve  species,  five  of  which  are  North 
American.  The  resins  of  the  black  and  red  spruce  are  used 
as  confections. 

'54 


PLATE  27.     BLACK  SPRUCE  (Picea  nt^a 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 


'55 


The  insect  and  fungus  enemies  of  spruce  trees  cause  great 
losses,  and  have  received  much  attention.*  Dead  and  fallen 
trunks  are  sometimes  so  numerous  as  to  obstruct  passage 
through  the  forest. t  The  largest  and  best  trees  seem  most 
liable  to  attack.  Dr.  Hopkins  states  that  the  "  spruce- destroying 
beetle"  (Dendroctonus  piceaperia]  is  accountable  for  much  of 
this  damage  as  accomplished  in  the  East.  These  beetles  gain 
entrance  through  crevices  in  the  bark  and  cut  grooves  upon  the 
sensitive  outer  sapwood.  The  resins  that  collect  in  the  freshly 
cut  tunnels  are  ejected  by  the  beetle,  and  form  what  are  known 
as  "pitch  tubes."  These,  together  with  the  wood  particles, 
serve  to  mark  trees  that  have  been  recently  attacked.  There  is 
an  intimate  connection  between  the  attacks  of  insects  and  those 
of  fungi.  Fungi  may  lodge  in  and  infect  wounds  that  have  been 
caused  by  insects.  Von  Schrenk  associates  many  species  of 
fungi  with  living  and  dead  spruce  trees.  Much  wood  remains 
sound  for  some  time  after  the  physical  death  of  the  tree,  and 
is  clearly  available  for  lumber  and  paper  pulp. 

The  following  table  sets  forth  the  primary  distinctions  be- 
tween the  spruces  and  the  pines,  firs,  and  hemlocks: 


Names. 

Arrangement  of  Leaves. 

Shape  of  Leaves. 

Cones. 

Pines  (Pinus)  
Spruce  (Picea).  .  .  . 

Fir  (Abies}  

In  tufts  or  clusters. 
Single,  scattered,  point 
in  all  directions. 

Comparatively  long. 
Short,  sharp  ends, 
keeled    above    and 
below.      Somewhat 
four-sided. 
Short,  blunt  ends,  flat. 

Hang  down,  I  to 
6  inches  long. 

Stand  erect.  2  to 

Hemlock  (Tsuga).. 

pear  somewhat  as  in 
two  ranks. 
Single,  scattered,  ap- 
pear as  in  two  ranks. 

Short,  blunt  ends,  flat. 

4  inches  long. 

Hang  down,  |  to 
I  inch  long. 

*  "  Insect  Enemies  of  Spruce  in  the  Northeast"  and  "  Insect  Enemies  of  the 
Forests  of  the  Northwest."— Hopkins,  U.  S.  Div.  Entomology,  Bulletin  28  and  21; 
also  "  Diseases  New  England  Conifers,"  von  Schrenk,  U.  S.  Div.  Vegetable 
Physiology  and  Pathology,  Bulletin  No.  25. 

t  '-'Windfalls"  may  result  from  insects,  fungi,  age,  or  tornadoes.  Trees  are 
piled  upon  one  another  like  jackstraws.  Trunks  and  limbs  intermingle  and  are 
sometimes  penetrated  by  wiry,  second-growth  saplings.  Passage  through  such  a 
district  is  made  by  cautiously  walking  back  and  forth,  up  and  down,  over  trunks 
and  limbs.  It  is  sometimes  impossible  to  proceed  more  than  two  or  three  miles 
daily  in  a  straight  line.  The  writer  was  within  sound  of  the  creation  of  one 
windfall  by  tornado.  Snow,  "  Transactions  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  1899," 
also  Pa.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Third  Annual  Report.  The  term  "Blow-down"  is 
sometimes  used. 


156  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 


(  Picea  nigra  Link. 
Black  Spruce.  -  picea 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Spruce  (Vt.),  Yew  Pine,  Spruce         White  Spruce  (W.  Va.). 

Pine  (W.  Va.).  He  Balsam  (Del.,  N.  C.). 

Double  Spruce  (Me.,  Vt.,  Minn.).     Water  Spruce  (Me.). 
Blue  Spruce  (Wis.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Minnesota,  Alleghany  Mountains  to  North 
Carolina.  Best  in  Canada. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Conical  shape  with  straight  trunk.  Dark  foliage.  Cones 
remain  for  several  years,  being  thus  distinct  from  white  spruce. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish,  nearly  white;  sapwood  lighter.  Straight 
grain,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,   soft,   not  strong,    elastic,    resonant.     Not    durable   when 

exposed. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  flooring,  carpentry,  ship-building,  piles,  posts,  railway 
ties,  paddles,  oars,  "sounding-boards,"  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,560,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

A  substitute  for  soft  pine.      Resin  is  used  as  a  confection. 


The  red  spruce  (Picea  rubens)  is  the  principal  lumber  spruce  of 
northern  New  England.  It  is  fifty  to  eighty  feet  high,  and  two  of 
three  feet  in  diameter.  Large  quantities  of  the  light,  close-grained, 
reddish,  satiny  wood  are  cut  into  lumber  or  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper  pulp. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  157 

White  Spruce.  \  P*cea  alba  ^ink:  , 

|  Picea  canadensis  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Single     Spruce     (Me.,     Vt.,  Skunk    Spruce    (Wis.,    New 

Minn.).  Eng.). 

Bog      Spruce,      Cat     Spruce  Spruce,  Double  Spruce  (Vt.). 

(N.  Eng.).  Pine  (Hudson  Bay). 

Locality. 

Northern  United  States,  Canada  to  Labrador  and  Alaska. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in 
diameter,  occasionally  larger.  Compact,  symmetrical,  conical 
shape.  Foliage  lighter  than  black  spruce.  Cones  fall  sooner 
than  those  of  black  spruce.  Whitish  resin. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  sapwood  similar.  Straight-grained, 
numerous  prominent  medullary  rays.  Compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wrood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong  (similar  to  Black  Spruce). 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  flooring,  carpentry,  etc.  (similar  to  Black  Spruce). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,450,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Notable  as  resident  of  high  latitudes.  Chief  tree  of  arctic 
forests.  Wood,  used  similarly  to  black  spruce,  is  substituted 
for  white  pine. 


It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  black  and  white  spruce 
trees.  The  foliage  of  the  former  is  darker  as  a  whole,  and  there  are  dif- 
ferences in  shape  and  persistence  of  cones.  The  names  double  spruce  and 
single  spruce  are  without  evident  foundation.  Woods  exhibit  similar 
qualities  and  are  classed  together  by  lumbermen. 


158  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Spruce.  Picea  engelmanni  Engelm. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White    Spruce    (Ore.,    Col.,         White  Pine   (Idaho),    Moun- 

Utah,  Idaho).  tain  Spruce  (Mont. ). 

Balsam,  Engelmann's  Spruce 

(Utah). 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountain  region,  Montana  to  Mexico,  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  British  Columbia  (high  elevations). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Frequently  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height  and  some- 
times higher,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  low 
shrub. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  pale  reddish  yellow,  sapwood  similar.  Close,  straight 
grain,  compact  structure,  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  charcoal,  fuel.  Bark  rich  in  tannin,  sometimes  used 
for  tanning. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

21. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  140,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8100. 

Remarks. 

Notable  as  resident  of  high  altitudes,  extensive  forests  occurring 
at  eight  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  A  valuable 
tree  of  the  central  and  southern  Rocky  Mountain  region. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELB4F  WOODS.  159 

Sitka  Spruce.          Picea  sitchensis  Traufv.  and  Mayer. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sitka  Spruce  (local  and  com-         Menzies  Spruce, 
mon  name).  Western  Spruce. 

Tideland  Spruce  (Cal.,  Oreg.,         Great  Tideland  Spruce. 
Wash.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Alaska  to  central  California.  Extends 
inland  about  fifty  miles;  prefers  low  elevations. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  feet  or  more 
in  diameter.  Flat-pointed  pyramidal  needles,  oval  cylindrical 
cones,  thick  scaly  reddish-brown  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse- 
grained, satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Construction,  interior  finish,  fencing,  boat-building,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

2626. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

A  giant  among  spruces.     Forms  an  extensive  coast-belt  forest. 


DOUGLAS  FIR,  DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  OR  RED  FIR. 

(Pseudotsuga.) 

This  species  affords  the  "  hard  pine  "  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
The  trees,  among  the  most  important  of  the  West,  form  almost 
pure  forests  in  western  Washington  and  Oregon  where  they  are 
best  developed.  They  grow  at  high  altitudes,  as  in  Colorado: 
specimens  are  found  in  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  isolated  experi- 
ments have  succeeded  in  the  Adirondacks. 

The  wood  suggests  true  hard  pine  or  larch  in  properties, 
appearance  and  applications.  It  is  almost  wholly  heartwood, 
with  pronounced  yearly  rings,  and  is  of  a  yellow  or  light  red 
color.  It  is  strong,  stiff,  durable,  and  often  difficult  to  work; 
it  is  the  heavy  construction  wood  of  its  vicinity;  while  the  pos- 
sibility of  easily  obtaining  such  material  in  pieces  two  feet  square 
and  one  hundred  feet  long  renders  it  one  of  the  principal  di- 
mension timbers  of  the  world.  Douglas  fir  is  employed  in  heavy 
constructions  for  posts,  poles,  piles,  masts,  railway  ties,  lumber, 
flooring,  finish  and  fuel.  Lumbermen  recognize  "red"  and 
"yellow"  varieties.  The  former,  derived  from  younger  trees, 
is  coarser  and  less  valuable.  Douglas  fir  wood  is  marketed  under 
the  names  of  Oregon,  hard  and  Pacific  pine,  red  fir,  red  spruce, 
yellow  fir,  etc.  The  trees,  among  the  greatest  known  to  man, 
are  said  to  have  reached  heights  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
and  diameters  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  They  are  very  hardy,  and, 
like  redwoods,  likely  to  survive  commercial  extinction.  The 
bark,  which  is  sometimes  two  feet  thick,  is  rich  in  tannin. 

The  tree,  although  known  as  Oregon  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir, 
is  neither  true  pine  nor  fir  but  a  sort  of  bastard  hemlock.  The 
name  pseudotsuga  is  from  pseudo  or  false  and  Isuga  or  hemlock. 
The  species  was  earlier  classed  as  Pinus  taxifolia  and  Abies 
taxifolia.  Some  notes  respecting  the  difficulties  connected  with 
the  nomenclature  of  this  species  are  on  pages  23  and  24  of  Sud- 
worth's  Check  List.  The  genus  has  three  species.  The  much 
less  important  Big  Cone  Spruce  (Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa)  of 
California  yields  inferior  wood. 

160 


PLATE  28.    DOUGLAS  SPRUCE 


(Pseudotsuga  taxijolia). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  161 


Douglas  Spruce,  Douglas  Fir.  \  Pseudotsu8a 

\  Pseudolsuga  Douglam  Carr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.  ) 

Oregon    Pine    (Cal.,    Wash.,  Douglas    Tree,    Cork-barked 

Oreg.).  Douglas  Spruce. 

Red  Fir,  Yellow  Fir  (Oreg.,  Spruce,  Fir  (Mont.). 

Wash.,  Idaho,  Utah,  Mont.,  Red  Pine  (Utah,  Idaho,  Col.). 

Col.).  Puget  Sound  Pine  (Wash.). 
Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Mexico  to  British  Columbia.  Best  in 
western  Oregon  and  Washington. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  and  seventy-five  to  sometimes  three  hundred  feet 
in  height,  three  to  five  and  sometimes  ten  feet  in  diameter. 
Older  bark  rough-gray,  often  looking  as  though  braided. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  red  to  yellow,  scant  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Comparatively  free  from  resins,  pronounced  variable  rings 
(four  to  forty  per  inch). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  usually  hard,  strong,  difficult  to  work,  durable.  Splits 
easily. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  construction,  dimension  timbers,  railway  ties,  piles,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

36  (average  of  20  specimens  by  Soule).f 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,680,000  (average  of  41  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,862,000  (average  of  21  specimens  by  Soule).f 

1,824,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7,900  (average  of  41  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
9,334  (average  of  21  specimens  by  Soule).f 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Used  similarly  to  hard  pine.  Lumbermen  divide  into  red  and 
yellow  woods,  the  former  dark  and  coarse,  the  latter  hne, 
lighter,  and  more  desirable.  These  distinctions  probably  due 
to  age.  One  of  the  world's  greatest  trees. 

f  Professor  Frank  Soule,  University  of  California.     Trans.  Am.  List  M.  E., 
p.  552,  Vol.  XXIX. 


FIR. 


(Abies.) 

Several  of  the  fir-trees  of  the  western  United  States  attain 
to  very  great  size.  The  silver  fir  (Abies  grandis)  and  the 
white  fir  (Abies  concolor)  supply  much  wood  in  the  section  in 
which  they  grow.  The  balsam  fir  (Abies  balsamed)  of  the 
Eastern  States  is  of  some  commercial  importance. 

Fir  wood  resembles  spruce  in  appearance  and  in  structural 
qualities.  It  may  be  told  from  spruce  as  well  as  from  pine 

and  larch  by  the  fact  that  fir 
has  no  resin-ducts.  The  bal- 
sam fir  is  distinguishable  by 
clear  liquid  resin  which  ap- 
pears in  blisters  in  the  bark. 
The  coarse,  weak  wood  is 
cleaner  than  the  bark  would 
indicate.  Spruce  and  fir  woods 
are  often  confused  in  the 
United  States,  while  pine, 
spruce,  and  fir  are  similarly 

BALSAM  FIR  (Ate,  takamea).  confounded  in  Europe.  The 

great  sizes  often  attained  by 

Western  Species  rank  them  with  Redwoods,  Douglas  Firs  and 
Giant  Cedars  as  needing  special  logging  methods.*  Platforms 
are  arranged  so  that  large  trees  can  be  cut  through,  far  up  from 
the  ground,  where  defects  common  near  the  roots  are  excluded. 
Trees  are  felled  so  as  to  strike  uniformly  along  most  of  their 
lengths  as  otherwise  the  wood  would  break  or  splinter.  These 
large  logs  are  gathered  or  "  yarded  "  by  engines  so  powerful  as  to 
operate  against  all  usual  obstructions,  and  the  logs  finally  leave 
the  forests,  moved  by  endless  cables,  over  roads  termed  skidways. 
Steam  is  employed  and  the  processes  involve  many  features  not 
usual  in  Eastern  fields. 

Fir  trees  have  flat,  scattered,  evergreen  leaves,  and  cones  that 
stand  erect  (see  footnote  under  spruce). 

*  Bishop,  "  I.ngineering  Magazine,"  Vol.  XIII,  p.  70;  Gannett,  "  National 
Geographic  Magazine,"  Vol.  X,  No.  5,  May,  1899. 

162 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  163 

Balsam  Fir,  Common  Balsam  Fir.     Abies  bahamea  Mill 
Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Balsam  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  N.  Y.).  Blister   Pine,    Fir    Pine    (W. 

Fir  Tree  (Vt.)-  Va.). 

Balm  of  Gilead  (Del.).  Single    Spruce,     Silver    Pine 

Canada  Balsam  (N.  C.).  (Hudson  Bay). 

Balm  of  Gilead   Fir  (N.   Y., 

Pa.). 
Locality. 

Minnesota  to  Virginia,  northward  intermittently  into  Canada. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Sometimes  low  shrub.  Blisters  in  smooth  bark  contain  thick 
balsam.  Erect  cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  white  to  brownish,  sapwood  lighter.  Coarse-grained, 
compact  structure,  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  not  durable  or  strong,  resinous,  easily  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Occasionally  used  as  inferior  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7300. 

Remarks. 

Scattered  throughout  Northern  pineries.  Cut  when  of  sufficient 
size  and  sold  with  pine  or  spruce.  Cultivated  in  gardens. 
Exudations  known  as  Canada  Balsam  used  in  medicine.  The 
poplar  (P.  balsamifera)  is  also  called  Balm  of  Gilead. 


164  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Great  Silver  Fir,  White  Fir.    Abies  grandis  LinJL 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Silver  Fir  (Mont.,  Idaho).  Yellow  Fir  (Mont.,  Idaho). 

Oregon   White  Fir,    Western         Lowland  Fir. 
White  Fir  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Vancouver  region,  northwestern  United  States.  Best  in  west 
Washington  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  two 
to  five  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  deep  green  above,  silvery 
below,  usually  curved.  A  handsome  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter.  Coarse-grained,  com- 
pact structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  interior  finish,  packing-cases,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

22. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7000. 

Remarks. 

Forms  important  part  of  local  mountain  forests  and  furnishes 
much  lumber  locally.  Best  on  rich  bottom  lands,  but  found  at 
altitudes  of  five  thousand  and  six  thousand  feet.  The  balsam 
secreted  in  blisters  on  young  bark  is  used  in  medicine. 
Grandis  refers  to  the  great  stature  of  the  tree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  165 

White  Fir,  Balsam  Fir.     Abies  concolor  Parry. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth). 

Silver  Fir,  Balsam  (Cal.).  White  Balsam  (Utah). 

California  White  Fir  (Cal.).  Balsam  Tree  (Idaho). 

Black     Gum,     Bastard    Pine  Colorado  White  Fir,  Concolor 

(Utah).  White  Fir. 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains  and  coast  ranges,  high  elevations. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  three  to  five 
feet  in  diameter.  Pale  green  or  silvery  foliage.  Bark  blisters 
filled  with  clear  pitch. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  to  nearly  white,  sapwood  same  or 
darker.  Coarse-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  without  odor. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Butter-tubs,  packing-boxes,  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

22. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,290,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Not  always  distinguished  from  the  species  Abies  grandis. 


i66  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Red  Fir.  Abies  magnified  Murr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

California  Red  Fir,  California         Magnificent  Fir,    Golden  Fir 
Red-bark  Fir  (Cal.).  (Cal.). 

Shasta  Fir  (Cal.). 

Locality.  f 

California,  vicinity  of  Mount  Shasta. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  six  to  ten 
feet  in  diameter.     Large  erect  cones.     Beautiful  form. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   reddish,    sapwood  distinguishable.      Rather  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  when  exposed,  liable  to  injury 
in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Construction,  sills,  lumber,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

940,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9900. 
Remarks. 

Magnifica  or  magnificent  refers  to  appearance  and  size  of  tree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  l6y 

Red  Fir,  Noble  Fir.  Abies  nobilis  Lindl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth  ) 

Noble  Silver  Far,  Noble  Red         Bigtree,     Feather-cone.     Red 

T       u  /^       x  Fir  (Cal.). 

Larch  (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Northwestern  United  States.     Cultivated  in  East. 
Features  of  Tree. 

One  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  six  to  nine  feet  in  diameter 

Leaves  curved.     Large,  beautiful  tree. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood    reddish    brown,    sapwood   darker.     Rather  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  hard,  strong,  elastic. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Fitted  for  house-trimmings. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,800,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

22,200. 

Remarks. 

Grows  at  high  elevations  (3000  and  4000  *feet).     With  other  fir 
forms  extensive  forests.     Sold  as  larch. 


Peters,  "Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  Vol.  VIII,  No.  9  (Sept.  1902),  pp.  362,  366. 


HEMLOCK. 

(Tsuga.) 

The  hemlocks  are  distributed  over  northern  United  States 
from  Maine  to  Michigan,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  They  generally  mingle  with  broad-leaved  and 
other  needle-leaved  species,  but  occasionally  form  pure  forests 
by  themselves. 

The  wood  is  coarse,  often  crossed-grained,  perishable, 
brittle,  liable  to  wind-shakes,  hard  to  work,  and  apt  to  warp 
and  splinter.  It  holds  nails  firmly  and  is  used  for  coarse 
lumber,  dimension  pieces,  paper-pulp,  and  latterly  for  cheap 
finish.  It  should  not  be  relied  upon  to  receive  shocks.  The 
bark  is  used  in  tanning.  A  prejudice  has  existed  against  hem- 
lock. This  is  because  hemlock  was  originally  compared  with 
white  pine,  spruce  and  fir.  The  decrease  in  the  supply  of  better 
woods  has  increased  the  importance  of  hemlock. 

Western  hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla]  has  suffered  because  of 
the  reputation  of  Eastern  hemlock  (Tsuga  canadensis).  It  is  a 
better  wood,  stronger  and  quite  free  from  warp  and  shake.  West- 
ern hemlock  is  sometimes  effected  by  black  streaks  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  broad  and  three  inches  long.  These  are  with 
the  grain,  and  are  therefore  very  evident  save  in  cross  sections. 
Hemlock  discolored  in  this  way  is  sometimes  known  as  "  Black 
Hemlock."  True  Black  or  Alpine  hemlock  (Tsuga  merlensiana) 
grows  at  high  altitudes  (around  10,000  feet),  and  in  the  far  north 
and  has  not  yet  been  cut.  Western  hemlock  is  made  into  boxes, 
floors,  mill  frames  and  paper  pulp.  It  has  a  pronounced  odor 
and  is  seldom  attacked  by  insects  or  rodents;  it  is  good  for  grain 
bins.  The  wood  is  seldom  sold  under  its  true  name,  but  is  mar- 
keted as  second  grade  "  red  fir  "  or  the  like.  The  name  "  Alaska 
pine  "  has  been  suggested  to  avoid  the  influences  of  prejudice. 
Trees  are  very  vigorous  and  it  is  probable  that  the  wood  will 
become  better  known. 

Hemlock  trees  may  be  known  by  their  blunt,  flat,  evergreen 
leaves,  appearing  two-ranked  and  whitened  beneath  (see  foot- 
note under  spruce)  and  by  the  red  inner  bark. 

168 


PLATE  29.     HEMLOCK  (Tsuga). 


Hemlock  Tree  (Tsuga  canadensis).  Western  Hemlock  Tree  (T.  heterophvlla) 

Hemlock  Foliage  (Tsuga  canadensis).  (6500  feet  above  sea-level.) 

Hemlock  Wood  (  Tsuga  canadensis). 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  j69 

Hemlock.  Tsuga  canadensis. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Hemlock  (local  and  common  NY     Pa     NT     W   Va 

name)-  N.  C's.  C.) 

Spruce  (Pa     W.  Va.).  Spruce  Pine   (Pa.,  Del.,  Va., 

Hemlock  Spruce  (Vt,  R.  I.,  N.  C.,  Ga.). 

Locality. 

Eastern  and  central  Canada,  southward  to  North  Carolina  and 
Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  or  more  feet  in  height,  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Short  leaves,  green  above  and  white  beneath. 
Straight  trunk,  beautiful  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  distinguishable.  Coarse, 
pronounced,  usually  crooked  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong  or  durable,  brittle,  difficult  to  work, 
retains  nails  firmly,  splintery. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Coarse  lumber,  joists,  rafters,  plank  walks,  laths,  railway  ties. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,270,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

Canadensis  refers  to  Canada,  the  locality  where  tree  excels. 

The  Southern    or  Carolina   Hemlock    (T.    caroliniana)    resembles    Hemlock. 

The  Western  Hemlock  ( T.   heterophylla,  Alaska  to  California)  attains  height  of 

1 80  feet,    diameter  of  9  feet,  and  is  said   to    afford    heavier   and  better   wood. 

This  tree  is  known  by  the  following  names  (Sudworth): 

Western    Hemlock,     Hemlock    Spruce    Prince  Albert's   Fir,  Western  Hemlock 
(Cal.).  Fir,      California     Hemlock     Spruce 

Hemlock  (Oreg.,  Idaho,  Wash.)-  (England). 

Alaska    Pine    (Northwestern    Lumber- 
man). 

''The  Western  Hemlock."     Allen,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bureau  Bulletin  No.  33. 


LARCH.     TAMARACK. 

(Larix.) 

Larch  was  well  known  in  the  olden  time,  and  was  prized  in 
Europe  and  the  Orient.  The  two  principal  American  species 
are  also  called  tamarack  and  hackmatack.  The  Eastern  larch 
or  tamarack  (L.  americana]  prefers  peculiar  low,  wet  areas 
known  as  tamarack  swamps.  The  Western  tree  (L.  occiden- 
tals) resembles  the  European  species  and  prefers  dry  places. 
Although  trees  can  exist  in  very  wet  swamps  they  do  not  do  as 
well  as  where  moisture  conditions  are  less  excessive.  A  tree 
required  forty- eight  years  to  reach  a  diameter  of  two  inches 
under  the  first  condition,  while  another  tree  was  eleven  inches 
thick  at  the  end  of  thirty-eight  years,  where  there  was  less  water. 

Larch  wood  has  always  been  regarded  as  very  durable.  It 
is  noted  by  Pliny  and  other  ancient  authors.*  Vitruvius 
mentions  a  bridge  that,  having  burned,  was  replaced  by  one 
of  larch,  because  that  wood  would  not  burn  as  readily.t  The 
foundation-piles  of  Venice  are  said  to  be  of  larch .\  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  identities  of  ancient  woods  are  not 
always  beyond  question.  American  larch  resembles,  if  it  does 
not  equal,  true  foreign  wood.  The  trees  are  tall  and  straight, 
but  so  slender  as  to  be  seldom  cut  into  lumber,  almost  the 
entire  supply  being  demanded  for  posts,  ties,  and  poles.  The 
exceedingly  durable  wood  resembles  spruce  in  structure,  and 
hard  pine  in  weight  and  appearance. 

Larch  trees  are  marked  by  the  fact  that  their  foliage  is 
deciduous.  The  little  leaves,  gathered  in  tufts  or  bundles,  are 
of  a  bright  pea-green  when  fresh  in  the  springtime.  The 
appearance  of  tamarack  trees  when  divested  of  foliage  in  the 
winter  is  very  gloomy.  All  larch  trees  tolerate  less  water  than 
occurs  in  most  larch  swamps.  Trees  are  vigorous  growers. 
The  genus  deserves  more  attention.  Larix  is  from  a  Celtic 
word  Lar,  meaning  fat. 

*  Pliny,  XVI,  43-49  and  XVI,  30.  f  Vitruvius,  II,  9. 

t  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  310.     Also  Forestry  in  Minn  ,  Green. 

170 


PLATE  30.     LARCH  (Larix). 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  171 

Tamarack,  Larch.      \  LTarix  atme™<™<*  Michx. 

(  Lanx  laricina  (Du  Roi)  Koch. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack,  Larch,  American  Black  Larch,  Red  Larch 
Larch  (local  and  common  (Minn.,  Mich.), 

names).  Juniper  (Me.,  Canada). 

Hackmatack      (Me.,     N.      H., 
Mass.,  R.I.,  Del.,  111.,  Mich.) 
Locality. 

Northern  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  east  from  Great 
Lakes. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  high,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Short  pea-green  deciduous  leaves  in  tufts.  A  slender  tree, 
winter  aspect  gloomy. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse  conspic- 
uous grain,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  pronounced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  durable,  resembles  spruce. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,  fence-posts,  sills,  ship  timbers,  telegraph  poles, 
flagstaffs,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,790,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

Practically  all  (tall  thin)  trunks  required  for  railway  ties,  posts, 
masts,  etc. :  seldom  cut  into  lumber  in  consequence.  Grows 
in  light  swamps  often  extensive  and  known  as  tramarack 
swamps.  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  Vol.  XXIX, 
page  157.)  Lumbermen  note  two  varieties,  red  and  white 
Tamarack.  The  distinction,  based  upon  the  color  of  the 
heartwood,  is  probably  due  to  differences  in  age.  Red-hearted 
logs  make  the  more  durable  lumber. 


172  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Tamarack,  Larch.  Larix  occidentalis. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack,    Larch   (local  and  Western  Larch,  Great  Western 

common  names).  Larch,  Red  American  Larch. 

Hackmatack  (Idaho,  Wash.).  Western  Tamarack  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Washington  and  Oregon,  intermittently  to  Montana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high,  two  and  one- 
half  to  four  feet  in  diameter.     A  large  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   light   red,    thin  sapwood  lighter.     Coarse-grained, 
compact  structure,  annual  rings  pronounced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  strong,  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  railway  ties,  fuel,  limited  quantity  of  lumber,  similar  to 
L.  americana. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,400. 
Remarks. 

A  valuable  tree  of  the  Columbian  basin.      Differs  from  L.  ameri- 
cana in  that  it  grows  on  dry  ground,  often  at  high  elevations. 


The  European  Larch   (Larix  europaa)   is  a  native  of  Central 

irope.     The  trees  thrive  upon  ary  soil  and  are  used   in  American 

andscape  work.     They  are  good  needlcleaf  trees  to  plant  near  houses 

because    they    lose    their  leaves    during   the  winter.      The  wood  is 

similar  to  that  obtained  from  American  species.     The  European  larch 

the   Venice   turpentine   of   commerce.     This   substance,  once 

Collected    through  Venetian    markets,    is    now    largely   drawn    from 


PLATE  31      CEDAR  (Cednis,  Thuya,  etc.). 


Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Cedrns  libani). 

Red  Cedar  Bark  (Juniper its  rirginiana). 

White  Cedar  Wood  (Thuya  occidentalis). 


Foliage  of  White  Cedar  (T.  octidtntalis). 
Foliage  of  Red  Cedar  (J.  virginiana). 
Tree  of  Red  Cedar  (7-  virginiana.). 


CEDAR. 

(Cedrus,  Thuya,  Cbamcecyparis,  Libocedrus,  Jumper  us. ) 

Cedar  was  a  name  first  applied  to  the  true  or  Lebanon 
cedars  (Cedrus}  of  the  Eastern  continent,  but  later  to  certain 
Arborvitaes  (Thuya),  Junipers  (Juniperus},  and  Cypresses 
(Chamacy parts),  and  other  trees  (see  "  Spanish  Cedar,"  page 
128)  from  which  durable,  fine-grained,  more  or  less  fragrant 
woods,  known  as  cedar,  are  obtained.  Cedar  was  highly 
prized  by  the  ancients,  who  employed  it  in  costly  constructions, 
such  as  the  temples  of  Solomon  and  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.*t 
Woods  known  as  cedar  are  divided  into  so-called  Red  and 
White  Cedars. 

Red  Cedar  is  very  fine-grained,  soft,  light,  durable,  fra- 
grant, and  of  a  pinkish-red  color.  Much  wood  is  derived  from 
the  Red  Cedars,  Juniperus  virginiana,  Juniperus  scopulo.rum, 
and  Juniperus  barbadensis,  of  the  Eastern,  Western,  and 
Southern  States  respectively.  Although  seen  in  construction, 
red  cedar  is  chiefly  used  in  chests,  closets,  lead-pencils,  and 
cigar-boxes.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  trees 
(125,000)  t  are  annually  required  for  lead-pencils  alone.  The 
waste  is  often  converted  into  shavings  and  used  instead  of 
camphor  to  protect  woolens.  The  demand  is  greater  than  the 
supply.  Trees  are  easily  grown  on  almost  any  soil.  Trees 
and  wood  are  subject  to  fungus  diseases  which  apparently  cease 
after  trees  have  been  felled;  the  wood  is  then  durable. § 

White  Cedar  is  best  defined  as  all  cedar  that  is  not  "red 

*  It  is  probable  that  the  ancients  also  used  the  word  Cedar  somewhat  generally. 

f  Pliny,  16,  213  and  16,  216. 

I  Notes  on  Red  Cedar,  Mohr.  Bui.  31,  U.  S.  Division  Forestry  (Gifford 
Pinchot,  Forester). 

§  Several  of  the  fungoid  parasites  cause  swellings  known  as  "cedar  apples." 
The  branches  usually  die.  Professor  von  Schrenk  recognizes  two  diseases  of  the 
wood,  white  rot  (Polyporns  Juniperus  Schrenk)  and  red  rot  (Polyporus  carneus). 
(Bulletin  No.  21,  Division  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agriculture.) 

173 


174  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

cedar,"  and  is  obtained  from  several  valuable  trees.*  The 
arborvitaes  (T.  occidentalis}  vary  in  size  from  large  bushes  used 
in  hedging  and  ornamentation  to  small-sized  trees  gathered 
for  wood.  They  are  most  vigorous  on  cold,  wet  areas  known 
as  cedar  swamps. t  The  giant  arborvitae  (T.  gigantea),  noted 
for  its  great  girth,  and  the  yellow  and  Lawson  Cypresses,  are 
important  Pacific  coast  species.  The  incense  cedar,  while 
much  subject  to  fungus  trouble,  is  also  prized.:}:  White  cedar 
wood  is  durable,  plentiful,  and  employed  in  exposed  positions 
as  ties  and  shingles. 

Arborvitaes  (T/tuya)  have  very  small  overlapping  leaves 
that  form  flat  rods  or  fan-like  sprays.  The  cones  are  oblong, 
less  than  one-half  inch  in  length,  and  all  of  their  six  or  eight 
scales  separate  or  open  when  ripe.  The  cypresses  (Chamcecy- 
paris)  exhibit  similar  foliage,  but  their  tiny  cones  are  simple, 
roughened,  close,  or  solid  globules.  The  Junipers  {Junipcrus) 
often,  but  not  always,  bear  bluish-black  berries  powdered  with 
a  whitish-blue  bloom.  The  true  cedars  (Ccdrus)  differ  from 
the  others  in  that  they  have  simple  needle  leaves,  an  inch, 
more  or  less,  in  length,  together  with  cones  erect  and  several 
inches  in  length,  'the  Deodar  or  cedar  of  India  is  of  this 
genus.  The  principal  American  red  and  white  cedars  are  as 
follows : 

Red  Cedar.  White  Cedar. 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus virginiand).  Arborvitae  (Thuya  occidentalis). 
Red  Cedar  (Juniperns  scopulornni).  Canoe  Cedar  (Thuya  gigantea). 
Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  barbadfttsis).  White  Cedar  (Chamacyparis  thyoides). 

Port    Orford    Cedar    (Chamcrcyparis  law- 

soniana). 

Yellow  Cedar  (Chamtrcyparis  nutkaensis). 
Incense  Cedar  (Libodecrus  decurrens). 
Spanish  Cedar.     (See  page  128.) 

*  Heartwood  often  light  grayish  brown. 

f  Trunks  of  considerable  size  often  grow  surrounding,  but  apart  from,  such 
swamps.  Vigorous  lower  branches  impede  progress  through  swamps,  which  are 
often  as  thick  as  to  resemble  immense  cultivated  hedges.  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E., 
Vol  XXIX,  p.  157.) 

\  Von  Schrenk,  Contribution  No.  14,  Shaw  School  of  Botany,  St.  Louis. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  175 

Red  Cedar.   .  Juniperus  virginiana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Red  Cedar  (local  and  common  Savin  (Mass.,   R.   I.,  N.  Y., 

name).  Pa.,  Minn.). 

Cedar    (Conn.,    Pa.,     N.    J.,  Juniper,  Red  Juniper,  Juniper 

S.  C.,  Ky.,  111.,  la.,  Ohio).  Bush  (local). 
Pencil  Cedar,  Cendre  (La. ). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to 
Mississippi  River  in  the  North,  and  Colorado  River  in  the 
South. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Sometimes  low  shrubs.  Dark -green  foliage,  loose  ragged  outer 
bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dull  red,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  even 
grain,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  easily  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  weak,  brittle,  easily  worked,  durable,  fragrant. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ties,  sills,  posts,  interior  finish,  pencil-cases,  chests,  cigar-boxes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

30- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

950,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks. 

Fragrance  of  wood  utilized  as  insecticide.  The  Western  Red 
Cedar  (/.  scopulorum)  and  the  Southern  Red  Cedar  (/.  bar- 
badensis)  afford  similar  wood.  Live  trees  (Juniperus  vir- 
giniana} are  sometimes  attacked  by  fungi  similar  to  those 
associated  with  living  cypress  and  incense  cedar  trees.  The 
disease  stops  with  felling,  and  pitted  boards  have  been  known 
to  last  for  over  fifty  years. — Also  see  von  Schrenk,  Contri- 
bution 44,  Shaw  School  of  Botany,  also  Two  Diseases  of  Red 
Cedar,  U.  S.  Division  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology, 
Bui.  21,  Mohr,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  31. 


176  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

v./ 

Juniper.  Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Juniper    (Oreg.,    Cal.,    Col.,  ern    Cedar    (Idaho,     Col., 

Utah,  Nev.,  Mont.,  Idaho,  Mont.). 

N.  M.).  Western  Red  Cedar,  Western 

Cedar,    Yellow  Cedar,   West-  Juniper  (local). 

Locality. 

California,  Washington,  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
often  smaller.     Long  straight  trunk  in  West. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish-brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.     Very  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  durable,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fencing,  railway  ties,  posts,  and  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Rarely  found  below  an  altitude  of  6000  feet.     Fruit  said  to  be 
eaten  by  Indians. 


The  California  Juniper  (Juniperus  calihrnica]  occurs  inter- 
mittently in  some  districts  near  the  California  coast.  It  is  often 
small,  but  is  sometimes  as  much  as  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height  and 
one  or  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  bark  "is  shaggy  and  gray.  There 
are  wide,  gnarled  branches.  It  is  said  that  the  berries  are  edible. 
The  soft,  close-grained,  fragrant,  durable  wood  has  been  applied  to 
minor  purposes. 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS,  177 

White  Cedar,  Arborvitae.     Thuya  occidental™  Linn. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Cedar,  Arborvitae  (local         Atlantic  Red  Cedar  (Cal.). 

and  common  names).  Vitae  (Del.). 

Cedar  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  Y.). 

Locality. 

Northern  States  eastward  from  Manitoba  and  Michigan.  North- 
ward, also  occasionally  southward,  as  in  mountain  region  of 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  sixty  feet  high,  one  to  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter, 
often  smaller.  Bruised  leaves  emit  characteristic  pungent 
odor,  rapidly  tapering  trunk. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  darkening  with  exposure,  thin  sapwood, 
nearly  white.  Even,  rather  fine  grain,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  weak,  brittle,  durable,  inflammable.  Permits  spikes 
to  work  loose. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,    telegraph  poles,    posts,    fencing,    shingles,    and 

boats. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

19. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

750,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7200. 

Remarks. 

Trunks  so  shaped  as  to  be  seldom  sawn  for  lumber.  Often  used 
for  telegraph  or  other  poles,  or  else  thin  upper  ends  are  used 
for  posts,  and  lower  section  flattened  into  ties.  The  wood  is 
remarkably  durable.  Hough  mentions  a  prostrate  cedar  tree, 
over  the  trunk  of  which,  a  hemlock,  exhibiting  one  hundred 
and  thirty  yearly  rings  had  taken  root.  The  cedar  had  been 
in  contact  with  the  ground  for  at  least  that  time.  Much  of  the 
wood  of  this  tree  was  yet  sound  and  much  was  eventually  cut 
into  shingles. 


178  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Canoe  Cedar,  Arborvit*,  Giant  Arborvit*.    { 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.  ) 

Canoe  Cedar,  Giant  Arborvitae         Cedar,  Giant  Cedar,  Western 

(local  and  common  names).  Cedar  (Oreg.,  Cal.). 

Red  Cedar,  Giant  Red  Cedar,          Shinglewood  (Idaho). 

Pacific  Red  Cedar  (Wash., 

Oreg.,  Cal.,  Idaho). 

Locality. 

Coast  region,  California  to  Alaska,  Idaho  to  Montana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  eleven 
feet  in  diameter.  Four-sided  leaves  closely  overlapping  in 
sprays. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dull  reddish  brown,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  distinct. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  weak,  light,  brittle,  easily  worked,  very  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shingles,  fencing,  cooperage,  interior  finish,  canoes  (coast 
Indians). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,600. 
Remarks. 

Large  trees  are  often  hollow  at  the  bottom. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  I7g 

White  Cedar.  Chamcecyparis  thyoides  L. 

Nomenclature.      (Suduorth.) 

White  Cedar  (local  and  com-     Post  Cedar,Swamp  Cedar  (Del  ) 

mon  name)'  Juniper  (Ala.,  N.PC.,  Va.) 

Locality. 

coast  to  Mlssissippi' best  i 


Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter 

Shaggy  rugged  bark.     A  graceful  tree. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  pinkish  to  darker  brown,  sapwood  lighter.     Close- 
grained,  compact  structure,  conspicuous  layers. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  light,  soft,  not  strong,  extremely  durable  in  exposed  posi- 
tions, fragrant,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Boats,  railway  ties,  fencing,  poles,  posts,  shingles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
23  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 

20. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,000  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 

570,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6310  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 
6400. 

Remarks. 

Grows  chiefly  in  swamps.  "  White  cedar  posts  "  last  many  years. 
Thyoides  is  from  Thuya  meaning  arborvitae  and  eidos,  the 
Greek  for  "  resemblance." 

The  shallow-water  timber  swamp  is  very  formidable.  The  "  white 
cedar  swamp"  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  for  example,  is  covered  by 
growth  with  vigorous  branches  close  down  by  the  ground.  These  meet 
and  cross  so  that  passage  resembles  progress  through  a  cultivated  hedge. 
The  roots  lie  partly  out  of  water  and,  while  apparently  sound,  are  slippery 
and  sometimes  decayed!  so  that  pedestrians  stepping  or  springing  from 
one  to  another,  encumbered  by  burdens  and  obstructed  by  wiry  branches, 
are  apt  to  slip  and  fall.  The  constant  use  of  arms  and  limbs  with  shocks 
caused  by  the  shifting  of  "  packs  "  during  falls  and  the  annoying  insects, 
require  strength  and  patience.  Such  northern  swamps  can  best  be 
penetrated  during  winter.  The  so-called  tamarack  swamp  of  the  north 
differs  in  that  there  is  an  absence  of  under  branches.  The  cypress  is  the 
characteristic  swampland  tree  of  the  South. 


i8o  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Port  Orford  Cedar,  Lawson  Cypress. 

Chamcecyparis  lawsomana  Murr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

White  Cedar,   Oregon    Cedar         Ginger  Pine  (Cal.). 
(Oreg.,  Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast,  California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  sometimes  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  four  to 
twelve  (?)  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  overlapping  in  sprays, 
very  small  cones  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood    yellowish   white,    sapwood    similar.       Very  close- 
grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  strong,  durable,  easily  worked,  fragrant,  resinous. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,    flooring,    interior   finish,   ties,    posts,   matches,    ship- 
building. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,600. 

Remarks. 

Resin  employed  as  insecticide. 


Yew  (Taxus)  is  a  close-grained  wood  that  suggests  cedar,  but  it  is 
tough  like  hickory.  It  was  one  of  the  "fighting  woods"  of  the  Greeks. 
The  early  Celtic  races  associated  the  trees  with  funerals.  The  best  yew 
bow-staves  come  from  Italy,  Turkey  and  Spain,  and  were  once  distributed 
through  the  Venetian  markets.  The  Spanish  staves  were  so  important 
that  they  were  controlled  by  the  Spanish  Government.  Later,  European 
bows  were  backed  with  other  and  more  plentiful  woods.  Yew  is  now 
occasionally  employed  for  chairs,  canes  and  whips. 

Pacific  Coast  Indians  prized  the  Western,  Oregon  or  California  yew 
(Taxus  brevifolid)  for  bows,  paddles  and  fish  hooks.  The  Florida  yew 
(Taxus  floridana)  is  another  United  States  species.  Ernest  Thompson 
Seton  classes  American  woods  suitable  for  bows  in  order  of  excellence  as 
follows:  "  Oregon  Yew,  Osage  Orange,  White  Hickory,  Elm,  Cedar, 
Apple,  etc." 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  NEEDLELE/tF  WOODS.  181 


Yellow  Cedar,  Yellow  Cypress,)   ( 

Sitka  Cypress.  f  1       (Lamb]  Spach 

)    (  Chamcecypans  nutkaensis  Spach. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Nootka  Cypress,  Nootka  Alaska  Cypress,  Alaska 
Sound  Cypress  (local).  Ground  Cypress  (local). 

Locality. 

Oregon  to  Alaska. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  five  feet  or  more 
in  diameter.  Sharp-pointed,  overlapping  leaves,  small  glob- 
ular cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  clear  light  yellow,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  brittle,  hard,  durable  in  contact  with  soil, 
easily  worked,  receives  high  polish,  fragrant. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  furniture,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 


II,OCO. 

Remarks. 

Valuable  Alaska  timber  tree.     Commercially  not  distinguished 
from  Pacific  Arborvitse. 


L82  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Incense  Cedar,  White  Cedar.     Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Post   Cedar,    California    Post  California      White     Cedar 

Cedar  (local).  (local). 

Bastard    Cedar,    Red   Cedar,         Juniper  (Nevada). 
Locality. 

California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  occa- 
sionally higher,  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  lighter.  Close-grained,  compact 
structure.  Heartwood  often  pitted.  Fragrant. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  brittle,  soft,  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Flumes,  shingles,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

960,000. 

Remarks. 

Subject  to  attack  by  fungus,  causing  the  large  oval  pits  in  the 
heartwood.  Disease  ceases  upon  the  felling  of  trees.  The 
wood  between  the  decayed  spaces  is  apparently  sound,  even  in 
living  trees,  and  when  seasoned  is  durable  so  that  it  can  be  used 
for  posts  or  for  purposes  where  appearance  is  unimportant. 
Some  dealers  charge  as  much  for  defective  as  for  sound  wood. 
This  disease  is  similar  to  the  ones  associated  with  cypress  and 
red  cedar  (pages  175  and  184).  About  half  of  the  standing 
supply  is  effected.  The  disease  is  called  "pin  rot."  Also  see 
von  Schrenk,  Contribution  No.  14;  Shaw,  School  Botany, 
St.  Louis. 


PLATE  32.     CYPRESS  (Cupressus,  Taxodium). 


Monterey  Cypress  (Cufressus  macrocarfa). 
(Cottrtety  Doubltday,  Page  &•  Co.) 

Cypress  ( Taxodium  distichum}. 
(Photograph  by  Edward  J.  Dtivito*. 


"  Cypress  Wood. 


CYPRESS. 

(Cupressus  and  Taxodium.) 

The  name  cypress  has  been  chiefly  applied  to  trees  of  the  gen- 
era Chamaecyparis,  Cupressus,  and  Taxodium.  Most  species  of 
the  genus  Chamaecyparis  are  now  called  cedars  (see  page  173). 
The  Cupressus,  while  true  cypresses  and  important  in  Europe, 
have  no  significance  in  America.  The  single  species  of  the 
genus  Taxodium  is  not  a  cypress,  but  supplies  the  "cypress  " 
wood  of  American  commerce.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  confine 
the  name  cypress  to  the  true  cypress  (Cupressus}  and  to  the 
commercial  cypress  (Taxodium}. 

The  true  cypress  (Cupressus)  was  once  important  in  the 
East,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  have  given  the  gopher  wood 
of  which  the  Ark  was  built.*  Pliny  mentions  cypress  doors 
good  after  four  hundred  years,  and  a  statue  good  after  six 
hundred  years.  Herodotus  and  other  ancient  authors  f  speak 
of  it.  Authorities  in  the  middle  ages  thought  that  it  would 
never  decay.  The  cypress  gates  of  the  early  St.  Peter's, 
removed  after  one  thousand  years  of  service,  were  found  to  be 
in  perfect  condition.^  Cypress  was  much  prized  for  mummy- 
cases.  Living  trees  long  figured  as  funeral  emblems,  and  are 
yet  planted  over  graves  in  Italy  and  Turkey. §  The  common 
or  evergreen  cypress  is  the  chief  European  species.  The  eight 
or  nine  American  representatives  are  of  little  note  save  as  they 
are  sometimes  used  for  hedges  and  ornamentation.  The 
Monterey  and  Gowan  cypresses  (Cupressus  macrocarpa  and 
Cupressus  goveniana)  are  thus  employed.  There  are  small 
evergreen  scale-like  leaves. 

The  Monterey  cypress  (Cupressus  macrocarpa)  is  noted 
throughout  the  entire  California  region  because  of  a  clump  of 
trees,  frequently  visited,  that  include  the  only  original  specimens 

*  Funk  &  Wagnalls'  Standard  Dictionary,  quoting  Horace  Smith,  "  Gayeties 
and  Gravities,"  Chapter  VII,  p.  57- 

f  Pliny  16,  214  and  16,  215;  Herodotus  4,  16;  Virgil,  Georgics,  2,  443. 

J  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  B.  6,  p.  745. 

S  Brockhaus,  Kon-versations-Lexikon,  B.  4,  P-  6S4- 

183 


184 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  IVOOD. 


surviving  in  the  United  States.  The  famous  "  Seventeen-Mile 
Drive"  near  Monterey,  California,  passes  through  the  district 
in  which  this  group  is  located.  The  weird  forms,  with  gnarled 
wind-beaten  branches,  are  very  unusual.  Some  of  the  individ- 
ual trees  are  distinguished  by  names.  The  species  grows  readily 
in  many  areas  from  Washington  to  Mexico;  a  fact  not  easily 
reconciled  with  the  few  individuals  in  the  one  original  group. 
The  transplanted  monterey  cypress  is  locally  popular  in  hedges 
and  other  landscape  effects. 

The  American  or  Bald  Cypress  (JFaxodium  disticJuuti)  is  a 
tree  of  considerable  importance.  It  grows  in  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  on  submerged  lands  or  in  deep 
swamps  where  unusual  logging  methods  are  necessitated.  The 
seasoned  wood  resembles  white  cedar  in  that  it  is  soft,  light, 
and  very  durable.  It  has  been  called  by  many  names.  Pieces 
were  once  called  black  or  white  cypress 
according  as  they  sank  or  floated.  All 
dark  pieces  are  now  called  black  cypress. 
The  tinted  woods  of  some  localities  are 
called  red  or  yellow  cypress.  The  name 
bald  cypress  was  caused  by  the  leafless 
appearance  of  the  trees  in  winter.  The 
living  trees  are  subject  to  a  peculiar  fung- 
ous disease,  causing  numerous  cavities 
in  the  wood.  These  so  resemble  per- 
forations made  by  small  pegs  that  the 
wood  is  termed  "peggy.  "  The  trouble 
ceases  as  the  trees  are  cut,  and  the  wood 
is  then  as  durable  as  that  from  perfect 
trees.  About  one  third  of  the  standing  supply  is  thus 
affected.*  The  roots  frequently  project  upward  above  the 
surface  in  what  are  known  as  cypress  knees.  The  single 
species  of  this  genus  may  easily  be  recognized  by  its  deciduous 
foliage ;  the  little  leaves  are  separated  and  are  not  in  tufts  as 
with  the  tamaracks. 


BALD  CYPRESS  ( TaxoJium 
dislichum). 


*  U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  19  (Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 

Cypress,  Bald  Cypress.     Taxodium  distichum  Rich. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth  ) 

White  Cypress  (N.  C.,  S.  C.,         Swamp  Cypress  (La.). 
Fla.,  Miss.).  Deciduous  Cy-L  At 

Black  Cypress  (N.  C.,  S.  C,  Tex  ) 


.,  Miss.   La 
Tex.). 

Locality. 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  Maryland  through  Florida  to 
Texas,  Mississippi  Valley  from  southern  Illinois  to  the  Gulf 
Occasional  m  North,  as  New  York.  Forms  forests  in  swamps 
and  barrens.* 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  ten 
feet  in  diameter.  Knees  on  roots  often  hollow  in  old  age. 
Flat  deciduous  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  straight 
grain.  Frequently  pitted  by  disease. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable.     Green  wood  often  very  heavy. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  cooperage,  railway  ties. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
29  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 

28. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,290,000  (average  of  655  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 

1,460,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900  (average  of  655  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 
9600. 

Remarks. 

Wood  commercially  divided  into  "  white  "  and  "  black  "  cypress 
because  of  differences  in  age  and  environment.  Fungus  dis- 
ease pits  much  wood,  but  stops  with  felling  of  trees.  J 

*See  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXIX,  page  157. 
f  See  page  8. 

J  Von  Schrenk,  Contribution  No.  14,  Shaw  School  Botany,  St.  Louis;  also  U.  S, 
Forestry  Circular  No.  19. 


REDWOOD. 

(Sequoia. ) 

These  trees  grow  only  in  California.  There  are  two 
species:  the  common  redwood  (S.  sempervirens),  noted  for  its 
lumber,  and  the  big  or  mammoth  tree  (S.  washingtoniand),  so 
remarkable  for  its  great  size.  Geological  evidence  indicates 
that  the  genus  was  once  represented  by  many  species  on  both 
hemispheres,  but  that  all  disappeared  during  the  glacial  period 
save  the  two  here  noted. 

The  common  redwood  is  a  large  and  perfect  tree  and 
supplies  a  wood  suggesting  good  red  cedar.  This  soft,  light, 
clean,  reddish-brown,  durable  wood  works  and  stands  well,  does 
not  easily  take  fire,  and  is  obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces  for 
use  in  large  constructions.  Coffins  and  shingles  are  made  of 
it,  also  large  quantities  of  wooden  water-pipe  employed  for 
irrigation  purposes.  The  average  wood  is  seen  in  cheaper 
forms  of  indoor  finish,  while  occasional  pieces,  in  which  the 
grain  is  distorted,  are  classed  as  curly  redwood  and  used  for 
costlier  decorations.  See  plate  33.  Redwood  resists  fire  to  a 
remarkable  degree,  as  was  evidenced  in  the  original  City  of  San 
Francisco,  wnere,  in  the  absence  of  other  materials,  it  was  largely 
employed  for  building.  Redwood  is  so  durable  that  fallen 
trunks  that  have  remained  many  years  on  the  ground  have  been 
sawn  and  used  as  lumber.  Redwood  resists  many  forms  of 
inject  life.  Redwood  pipe  employed  in  irrigation  work  is  not 
usually  attacked  by  "  ants  "  or  other  insects  while  wet  and  in 
use.  Staves  have  sometimes  been  injured  while  lying  piled  upon 
the  ground,  but  such  instances  are  probably  exceptional  and 
the  injury  not  great.  Redwood  does  not  resist  attacks  by  marine 
life.  The  wood  of  Sequoia  washingtonia  is  seldom  commercially 
distinguished  from  that  of  Sequoia  sempervirens.'  The  unusual 
size  of  redwood  trees  cause  logging  operations  to  be  difficult  and 
costly.  (See  page  162.) 

1 86 


FLATE  33.   REDWOOD 


{Sequoia 


Ki-dwood  Foliage  (Sequoia 
sempennrens}. 


Giant  Redwood  Tree 


WasAingtoniana).     (Courtesy  DouMectay,  Page  &•  Co.) 

"Curly"  Redwood  Wood  (dissection). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  187 

Big  or  Mammoth  trees  have  been  measured  up  to  three  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  in  height  and  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter  (Sargent).  They  are 
thus  the  largest  of  American  trees  and  the  most  massive,  although  not  the 
tallest,  of  all  trees  Specimens  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter  have  been 
estimated  as  thirty-six  hundred  years  old,  and  it  is  thought  that  under 
favorable  conditions  trees  can  survive  for  five  thousand  years,  or  even 
longer.  The  oldest  trees  are  sound  throughout.  The  almost  incombustible 
bark  is  nearly  two  feet  in  thickness;  the  wood  is  brittle,  but  otherwise 
resembles  ordinary  redwood.  It  should  be  noted  that  large  exceptional 
trees  are  all  known,  and  that  most  of  them  have  names  such  as  the  "  Pride 
of  the  Forest,"  the  "Grizzly  Giant,"  and  the  "U.  S,  Grant."  These,  with 
younger  trees,  are  grouped  in  the  Mariposa,  Calavaras,  and  other  groves. 
Many  sawmills  are  unfortunately  engaged  on  the  trees  of  this  species,  the 
notably  large  specimens  of  which  do  not  exceed  several  hundred. 

The  history  of  a  Redwood  tree,  dating  from  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  years  before  the  Christian  era,  was  reported  by  Prof.  Dudley  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  through  the  late  Honorable  O.  H.  Platt  of  Con- 
necticut, on  February  n,  1904.  The  record,  obtained  by  counting  the 
concentric  layers  of  growth  on  the  cross-section  of  the  felled  tree,  showed 
that  forest  fires  had  occurred  during  the  years  245,  1441,  1580,  and  1797 
A.D.  The  last  fire  was  locally  severe,  since  it  charred  a  space  thirty  feet 
high  and  eighteen  feet  broad.  Recovery  from  such  wound  is  evidence  as 
to  the  vitality  of  the  species,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  new 
tissue  was  full,  even,  and  continuous,  as  deposited  above  the  wound. 

The  vitality  of  the  redwood  is  remarkable.  Its  ability  to  reproduce  by 
sprouts  from  the  parent  stump  is  almost  phenomenal.  The  redwood  tree 
resists  forest  fires  as  well  as  any  other  known  species,*  and  repairs  wounds 
that  would  destroy  many  other  trees.  The  thick  roots  project  downward 
so  sharply  as  to  suggest  inverted  funnels,  and  are  so  vigorous  that  trees  are 
seldom  uprooted  by  the  winds.  Growth  is  rapid,  trees  having  been 
known  to  develop  heights  of  eighty  feet  and  diameters  cf  sixteen  inches 
within  thirty  years.  The  genus  is  thus  unusually  important,  first,  because 
of  the  present  value  of  the  wood,  and,  second,  because  the  quick-growing 
healthy  trees  are  likely  to  resist  commercial  extinction. 

Redwood  trees  may  be  known  by  their  size,  locality,  and 
fine,  dull,  evergreen  foliage.  The  name  Sequoia  is  that  of  an 
Indian  chief.  The  two  species  must  be  distinguished.  Common 
redwoods  are  nearer  the  coast;  they  "follow  the  fogs."  Some 
of  the  trees  are  so  great  as  to  be  confused  with  other  "  giant " 
redwoods  (S.  Washingtonia}. 

*  This  is  because  the  thick  bark  resists  fire,  and  also,  to  some  extent,  because 
trees  (Sequoia  sempervirens)  thrive  in  moist  places 

Reference:  "The  Big  Trees  of  California,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Division,  Bulletin 
No.  28.  Also  Mr.  Jas.  Horsburgh,  Jr.,  Southern  Pacific  Railway. 


i88  EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 

Redwood.  Sequoia  sempervirens  Endl. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Redwood  (local  and  common  Sequoia,  California  Redwood, 
name).  Coast  Redwood  (local). 

Locality. 

Central  and  North  Pacific  coast  region. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  bundled  to  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  sometimes  higher, 
six  to  eight  and  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Straight, 
symmetrical  trunk.  Low  branches  rare. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  red,  changing  to  reddish  brown  when  seasoned; 
Thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse,  straight  grain,  compact 
structure,  very  thick  bark. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  soft,  very  durable,  not  resinous,  easily 
worked.  Does  not  burn  easily,  receives  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Timber,  shingles,  flumes,  fence-posts,  coffins,  railway  ties, 
water-pipes,  interior  decoration.  Bark  made  into  souvenirs. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
26  (census  figure,  see  page  8). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

790,000  (average  of  8  Humboldt  specimens),  f 
1,140,00x3  (average  of  7  Humboldt  specimens). f 
960,000  (census  figure,  see  page  8) 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

4920  (average  of  9  Humboldt  specimens).! 
7138  (average  of  7  Mendocino  specimens). f 
8400  (census  figure,  see  page  8). 

Remarks. 

Pacific  coast  chief  construction  wood.  Curled  or  distorted  grain 
adds  value  for  cabinet  purposes. 


The  Big  or  Mammoth  Tree  or  Giant  Redwood  (S.  washing- 
toniana  Sudworth  and  -S".  gigantea}  is  the  largest  tree  known.  The 
wood  resembling  that  of  S.  sempervirens  is  used  locally,  see  U.  S. 
Forestry  Bui.  No.  28. 

f  Professor  Frank  Soule\  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  California  Meeting,  1899. 
There  are  several  trees  of  this  species  near  New  York  City. 


PLATE  34.  ENDOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 


A  section  t 


I'alm  Tree. 


A  cross-section  of  Palm  wood.     (Natural  size.) 


ENDOGENOUS  TREES. 

(Monocotyledons.") 

Endogenous  trees  are  those  that  increase  from  within. 
Their  elemental  parts  are  similar  to  those  of  exogenous  trees 
but  the  arrangement  of  such  parts  differs  in  that  the  newer 
fibres  of  the  Endogen  intermingle  with  the  old,  pass  through 
a  pith-like  tissue,  and  cause  cross-surfaces  to  appear  as  dotted, 
whereas  the  new  material  of  the  Exogen  is  deposited  altogether 
and  upon  the  outside  of  the  old,  their  sections  exhibiting  rings 
or  layers.  The  Palms,  Yuccas,  Cornstalks,  and  Bamboos  are 
of  the  endogens.  Bark  is  unusual  on  trees  of  the  series. 

Endogenous  woods  are  hardest  and  most  compact  at  cir- 
cumferences. The  stems  of  palm  trees  are  solid,  but  those  of 
some  of  the  grasses,  particularly  those  that  grow  quickly,  are 
hollow.*  The  tube  or  canal,  when  existing,  is  due  to  sluggish- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  central  pith,  which,  developing  more 
slowly  than  the  outer  tissues,  finally  ruptures  and  disappears 
at  the  center.  There  are  also  more  or  less  permanent  joints 
or  knots, t  such  as  are  made  familiar  by  the  canes  and  bam- 
boos. The  stems  of  Endogenous  plants  are  seldom  cut  up 
into  lumber,  but  are  used  in  segments,  or  else  entire,  as  for 
troughs  or  piles.  |  The  use  of  Palm  wood  must  be  more  or  less 

*  The  Bamboo,  which  is  a  grass,  is  hollow,  while  the  cornstalk,  which  is  also 
a  grass,  is  not. 

f  The  knots  of  endogens  correspond  to  the  nodes  of  exogens.  Spaces  between 
the  nodes,  known  as  internodes,  mark  the  annual  lengthening.  Knots  are  places 
whence  leaves  have  emerged. 

%  See  "Marine  Wood  Borers,"  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XL,  pages  195 
and  204.  I89 


1 9o  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

limited  to  the  neighborhoods  in  which  such  trees  flourish,  but 
it  is  probable  that  the  Bamboo  can  be  much  more  generally 
employed.  Palmwood  shrinks  generally  in  drying,  principally 
in  the  pith-like  tissue  that  surrounds  the  fibres.  These  fibres 
are  then  closer  together  than  in  fresh  wood.  Palm  apparently 
repels  the  teredo  in  many  positions.  Teredoes  are  not  "  worms  " 
but  true  mollusks.  They  line  their  tunnels  with  calcareous  de- 
posits, along  the  smooth  surfaces  of  which  they  can  glide,  ex- 
panding or  contracting  at  will.  This  lining,  which  is  distinct 
from  the  boring  shell,  is  preferably,  if  not  always,  deposited 
upon  solid  wood,  cracks  and  other  imperfections  being  normally 
avoided.  Boards  nailed  over  woodwork  afford  perfection  dur- 
ing their  own  existence,  because  the  teredo  will  not  willingly 
cross  the  lines  of  separation.  Some  think  that  this  explains 
why  Palm  wood  often  remains  uninjured  in  localities  where  the 
hardest  of  hard  woods  easily  fail.  Palm  trees  are  cultivated  at 
Southern  coast  resorts,  where  they  add  greatly  to  the  beauty 
and  novelty  of  the  landscape.  The  Washington  or  Fanleaf 
Palm  is  popular  in  Southern  California.  The  Royal  Palm 
(Oreodoxa  regia}  is  native  in  Florida,  but  is  best  developed  in 
Central  America  and  the  West  Indies;  its  wood  is  hard  and 
heavy,  with  large,  dark,  fibre-bundles,  contrasting  sharply  with 
their  surrounding  tissue,  as  shown  in  the  lower  picture  of  plate 

34- 

The  Endogens  include  numerous  families  and  many  thou- 
sand species.*  The  grasses,  including  wheat,  rye,  and  Indian 
corn  at  the  North  and  sugar-cane  and  bamboo  at  the  South, 
belong  to  this  group.  Most  Endogens  are  herbs;  compara- 
tively few  furnish  material  for  structural  purposes.  The  Palms, 
including  the  palmetto,  rattans,  cane  palms,  and  others,  the 
Yucca,  including  the  Joshua  tree,  Spanish  bayonet,  and  others, 
and  the  Bamboos,  representatives  of  the  grasses,  are  thus  use- 
ful. Endogens  are  also  known  as  Monocotyledons. 

*Bastin  ("College  Botany,"  p.  379)  divides  into  about  fifty  natural  orders  dis- 
tributed among  seven  divisions.  Warming  ("Systematic  Botany,"  pp.  277,  278) 
divides  into  seven  families  corresponding  with  Bastin's  seven  divisions.  A.  Gray 
divides  into  twenty -one  orders  or  families.  Coulter  ("Plants,"  p.  237)  divide* 
into  forty  families,  including  twenty  thousand  species. 


PLATE  35.     PALM  (Palmacca) 


(Courtesy  N.  C.  Geological  Survey.) 


Washington  Palm  (untnmmed). 
(Menrt.  Doubleday,  Page  &•  Co.). 


Washington  Palm 

(trimmed). 
(Lot  A  ngtlet  Chamber  Contmerct.) 


PALM. 

PALMACE^E. 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  orders  of 
plants  known  toman.  The  one  thousand*  or  more  known 
species  are  distributed  over  the  tropical  and  semitropical 
regions  of  the  entire  world.  Only  a  few  species,  including  the 
palmettos  of  the  Gulf  States  and  the  fan  palms  of  Calfornia, 
are  native  in  the  United  States. 

Palms  have  tall,  columnar  trunks  without  branches,  but 
with  crowns  of  large  leaves  at  their  summits.  Their  forms 
and  proportions  are  often  magnificent.  The  wood  is  soft, 
light,  more  or  less  porous,  difficult  to  work,  and  not  strong. 
The  shapes  of  trunks  sometimes  cause  them  to  be  locally 
prized  for  piles,  while  the  porous  qualities  of  the  wood  are 
such  as  to  repel  teredo  t  There  are  many  by-products,  as 
fruit,  nuts,  oil,  etc.  The  rattan  or  cane  palms  of  India  and 
the  Malayan  Islands  sometimes  grow  to  a  height  of  two 
hundred  feet  and  are  imported  into  Europe  and  America  for 
chair-bottoms  and  the  like.  Thus  far,  the  palm  is  almost  ex- 
clusively valued  in  the  United  States  for  landscape  effects. 
Most  palms  seen  at  pleasure  resorts  are  not  native.  They  have 
been  transplanted. 

Sudworth  |  enumerates  the  following  as  attaining  to  the 
dignity  of  trees  in  the  United  States: 

Cabbage  Palmetto  (Sabal palmetto].  Sargent  Palm  (Pseudophcenix  sargentii). 

Silvertop  Palmetto  ( Thrijiax  mierocarpa}.  Fanleaf  Palm  ( Washingtonia  filiftra). 

Silktop  Palmetto  ( Thrinax  pan'iflora).  Royal  Palm  (Oreodoxa  reqin). 
Mexican  Palmetto  (Sabal  mexicana). 

*  Coulter,  "Plants/'  p.  241. 

t  "  Marine  Wood  Borers,"  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  195  and  204. 

|  "  Check  List,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  17. 

A.  L.  Wallace,  "  Palm  Trees  of  Amazon  and  their  Uses,"  London,  1853. 

191 


192  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cabbage  Palmetto.     Sabal palmetto  Walt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Cabbage   Palmetto,    Palmetto         Cabbage  Tree  (Miss.,  Fla.). 
(N.  C,  S.  C.).  Tree  Palmetto  (La.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast,  United  States  (intermittently). 
Rare  at  northern  limit.     Best  on  Florida  southwest  coast. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Medium  size,  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light-brown  tint.     Characteristic  coarse  fibre  arrangement.     As 
a  whole,  wood  is  soft  and   light,  but  fibro-vascular    bundles 
are  hard  to  work. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,    soft,   difficult  to  work;  durable  in  marine  work  ;  repels 

teredo. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Piles,  wharf-work,  etc.     Used  locally  for  small  marine  works. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
Remarks. 
Scrubbing-brush  "bristles"  are  made  in  considerable  quantities 

in  Florida  from  the  sheath  of  young  leaves.     The  inner  part 

of  young  plant  is  edible. 

The  following  Palmettoes  also  grow  in  the  United  States.  (Sudworth) 
Silktop  Palmetto,  Silver  Thatch  (Thrinax  parvi flora).  Silvertop  Palmetto, 
Prickly  Thatch,  Brittle  Thatch  (Thrinax  microcarpa),  Mexican  Palmetto  (Sabal 
mexicana).  The  first  two  grow  in  Florida  and  the  Bahamas.  The  last  in  South- 
western Texas  and  old  Mexico. 

Date  Palm  (Ptuenix  dactylifera).  Conditions  seldom  favor  the  development 
of  commercial  dates  save  in  Arizona,  where  the  industry  is  likely  to  prove  a  per- 
manent one.  Other  species  of  Pluznix,  cultivated  for  decorative  purposes  and 
known  as  date  palms,  are  distinct.  "Phoenix"  refers  to  Phoenicia.  "Dactylus" 
and  "dates"  are  derived  from  the  Hebrew  "dachel."  *  The  date  plam  affords 
fruit,  syrup  and  vinegar.  The  wood  is  used  to  make  beds,  tables,  chairs,  cradles 
and  boats.  "The  leaves  are  formed  into  fans,  baskets,  cord,  and  paper.  The 
light,  porous,  but  durable,  trunk  is  used  in  carpentry.  The  fibres  on  the  trunk 
are  made  into  rope."  "Arabia,"  S.  M.  Zweimar. 

*  Swingle  (Year  Book,  Dept.  Agriculture,  1900,  pp.  453,  490),  Tourney  (Ariz. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  29). 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES.  I93 

Washington  Palm.       j  Washing tonia  filifera  WendL 
X  anleat  Palm.  \Neowashingtoniafilamentosa  Wendl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Fanleaf     Palm      Washington         California  Fan  Palm,  Arizona 

Palm,  Desert  Palm  (Cal.).  Palm,  Wild  Date  (Cal .) 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Fan-shaped  leaves  rising  yet  farther  in  tuft  from 
summit ;  edible  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light  greenish  yellow  to  dark  red,  conspicuous  grain. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  shrinks  in  seasoning,  difficult  to  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Ornamental  purposes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The  largest  of  the  United  States  Palms.     Much  used  for  land- 
scape effects  in  California. 

These  trees,  native  in  the  deserts,  are  probably  the  most  popular  of 
the  palms  transplanted  in  the  cultivated  districts  of  Southern  California. 
"Desert"  refers  to  the  original  ranges  of  the  trees.  "Fanleaf"  refers  to 
the  large  fan-like  leaves,  while  "filifera"  and  "filimentosa"  allude  to  the 
filaments  hanging  from  the  leaves. 

The  trunks  are  of  no  more  importance  than  those  of  other  local  palms, 
but  the  leaf-stalks  exhibit  strength  and  characteristics  as  follows: — Fresh 
stalks  are  light,  tough,  stringy  and  flexible.  They  are  of  a  gray  green 
color  and  resemble  bamboo  in  that  they  harden  and  turn  yellow  as  they 
dry.  They  differ  from  bamboo  in  the  form  of  their  cross  sections  and  in 
that  rods  10  feet  or  more  in  length  have  no  joints.  Many  thousand  of 
these  leaf  stalks  are  annually  pruned  from  growing  trees  in  Southern 
California  and  are  at  present  burned  as  waste. 

Two  roughly  cured  stalks  were  tested,  the  central  portions  of  each  spe- 
cimen broke,  leaving  edges  which  stripped  without  sign  of  fracture.  One 
piece  resisted  tension  up  to  11,370  pounds  per  square  inch,  while  the  other 
broke  at  10,150  pounds  per  square  inch.  These  figures,  that  must  be  con 
sidered  with  the  light  weight  of  the  wood,  were  averaged  for  entire  s( 
tions  including  those  parts  that  stripped  without  breaking.  Strength 
would  doubtless  be  increased  by  selection  and  seasoning. 

The  "wild  date"  must  not  be  confused  with  the  true  date   Falm 
(Phoenix  dactylifera)  as  naturalized  in  Florida,  Arizona,  and  California.   U 
I94-) 


YUCCA. 

(Yucca.) 

The  eighteen  species  constituting  this  genus  are  all  Ameri- 
can. Twelve  of  them  are  found  in  the  southern  and  western 
United  States,  and  eight  of  these  are  mentioned  by  SudwOrth  * 
as  arborescent.  Several  of  the  Yuccas  are  cultivated  because 
of  their  beautiful  lily-like  flowers.  The  Tree  Yucca  or  Joshua- 
tree  affords  wood. 

This  last  named  species  produces  a  short  stout  trunk, 
peculiar  in  that  it  is  covered  by  thick  bark.  The  soft,  spongy 
wood  is  sometimes  sawn  into  lumber,  made  into  souvenirs  and 
lately  into  artificial  limbs.  An  attempt  to  manufacture  it  into 
paper-pulp  t  is  said  to  have  failed  because  of  high  cost  made 
necessary  by  the  remote  position  of  the  industry.  Hough 
notes  |  that  trees  are  sometimes  attacked  by  borers  that  im- 
pregnate the  walls  of  their  tunnels  with  hardening  antiseptic 
solutions,  causing  such  parts  to  remain  after  the  disappearance 
of  the  others.  And  that  these  parts  are  described  as  "  petrified 
wood,"  and  are  prized  for  fuel  since  they  burn  with  "little 
smoke  and  great  heat."  Yucca  wood  fibres  interlace  much  as 
in  cloth.  The  wood  has  practically  no  cleavage.  This  is  well 
shown  in  pieces  that  have  been  steamed  and  then  stretched. 
Sheets  of  yucca  wood  peeled  from  around  the  billet  (see 
footnote,  page  13)  are  as  roughly  pliable  as  felt  of  twice  the 
thickness. 

The  eight  species  noted  by  Sudworth  are  as  follows: 

Yucca  arborescens  (Joshua  tree).  Yucca  aloifolia  ( Aloe-leaf  Yucca). 

Yucca  treculeana  (Spanish  Bayonet).  Yucca  macrocarpa  (Breadfruit  Yucca). 

Yucca  gloriosa  (Spanish  Dagger).  Yucca  brevifolia  (Schott  Yucca). 

Yucca  mohavensis  (Mohave  Yucca).  Yucca  constricta. 

*  "Check  List,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  17. 

f  South  of  Mohave  Desert  in  California  about  twenty  years  ago. 

$  American  Woods,  Part  VII,  p.  57. 

194 


PLATE  36.     YUCCA  (  Yucca  arborescent}. 


By  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Uoubleday,  J'age  Is*  Co.     fliotO£ra.j>k  by  Conaway. 


Wood  of  Yucca. 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES.  195 

Joshua-tree,  Yucca.         -i  Y?cca  arborescens  Torr. 
(  Yucca  brevifolia  Engelm. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Joshua-tree,     The    Joshua,  Yucca  Cactus  (Cal.). 

Yucca,  Yucca  Tree  (Utah 
Ariz.,  N.  M.,  Cal.). 

Locality. 

Central  and  lower  Rocky  Mountain  region. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  forty  feet  in  height,   six   inches  to  two  feet  in 
diameter. 

Thick  outer  cover  or  bark.* 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light  brown  to  white,  porous  grain,  interlaced  fibre  structure. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  spongy,  flexible  in  thin  sheets,  such  as  are  devel- 
oped by  the  rotary  cut. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Paper-pulp,  souvenirs,  boxes,  book  covers,  and  other  small 
articles,  artificial  limbs. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Bark  is  unusual  in  the  case  of  endogeneous  trees.  Arborescens 
refers  to  fact  that  it  is  a  tree.  Artificial  arms  and  legs  are 
made  by  bending  veneers  of  yucca  wood  over  moulds  of  the 
stumps  of  amputated  members.  Shells  are  made  up  by  the 
aid  of  strong  cements,  and  the  "limbs"  that  result  are 
strong,  tough,  and  very  light.  The  processes  are  protected 
by  patents  which  include  the  methods  by  which  the  wood  is 
artificially  toughened.  f 

*  See  paragraph  Bark,  Endogenous  Trees,  page  189. 
t  Yucca  Limb  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  California. 


BAMBOO. 

(BambusiZ.) 

The  bamboos  are  giant  members  of  a  group  (grasses  *),  the 
other  individuals  of  which,  while  widely  distributed,  valued, 
and  very  numerous,  are  for  the  most  part  insignificant  as  to 
bulk,  height,  and  structural  characteristics.  The  canes  and 
bamboos  are  exceptions  in  that  they  form  what  may  well  be 
called  forests,  and  produce  woods  used  in  construction.  The 
Bamboos,  included  in  about  twenty  genera  and  two  hundred 
species,f  are  distributed  unevenly  over  the  tropical  zone. 
Some  are  hardy  when  transplanted  in  California  and  the 
Carolinas. 

Some  bamboo  plants  with  numerous  stalks  and  delicate 
foliage  resemble  plumes  of  giant  ostrich  feathers.  Stems  often 
attain  heights  of  seventy  feet  and  diameters  of  four  and  six 
inches  (see  Fig.  3  plate).  Knots  or  joints  are  at  first  close 
together,  but  are  later  one  or  two  feet  apart.  Growth  is  sur- 
prisingly rapid.  A  Philippine  specimen,  which  when  meas- 
ured was  eighteen  inches  high  and  four  inches  in  diameter, 
grew  two  feet  in  three  days 4  Florida  stalks  have  reached 
heights  of  seventy-two  feet  in  a  single  season. §  The  plants 
are  apt  to  take  complete  possession  of  the  ground  on  which 
they  grow.  Those  who  use  bamboo  value  it  highly.  It  is 
employed  entire  or  else  split  into  segments.  Some  can  be 

*  Grasses,  "one  of  the  largest  and  probably  one  of  the  most  useful  groups  of 
plants.  ...  If  grass-like  sedges  be  associated.  .  .  .  there  are  about  oooo  species, 
representing  nearly  one  third  of  the  Monocotyledons."  (Coulter,  "  Plants,"  pp.  240- 
241.)  The  various  pasture-grasses,  cereals,  and  sugar-canes  are  here  included. 
Bamboos  and  canes  are  distinct  in  that  they  afford  structural  materials. 

+  B.  E.  Fernow  notes  (p.  2Q,  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  ill:  "In  addition  to  the  genus 
bambusa,  the  genera  Arundinaria,  Arundo,  Dendrocalamus,  and  Guadua  are  the 
most  important."  All  of  tribe  Bambusae. 

1  Frederic  H.  Sawyer.  Memb.  Inst.  C.  E.,  "Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines," 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  iqoo  (p.  O. 

§  Page  29,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  1 1. 

196 


PLATE  37.    BAMBOO  (Bambusce). 


Bamboo  Grove,  Philippines. 
By  the  courtesy  of  the  Manila  P.  i.  Forestry  Bureau. 


Bamboo  Grove,  China. 

inches  diameter. 


Bamboo  sections, 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES.  197 

opened  and  flattened  into  rough  boards,  splitting  everywhere 
but  holding  together.*  For  vessels  it  is  cut  off  with  reference 
to  the  partitions.  The  subject  is  thus  summarized  by  Dr. 
Martin :  t  "  The  Chinese  make  masts  of  it  for  their  small 
junks,  and  twist  it  into  cables  for  their  larger  ones.  They 
weave  it  into  matting  for  floors,  and  make  it  into  rafters  for 
roofs.  They  sit  at  table  on  bamboo  chairs,  eat  shoots  of 
bamboo  with  bamboo  chop-sticks.  The  musician  blows  a 
bamboo  flute,  and  the  watchman  beats  a  bamboo  rattle. 
Criminals  are  confined  in  a  bamboo  cage  and  beaten  with 
bamboo  rods.  Paper  is  made  of  bamboo  fibre,  and  pencils  of 
a  joint  of  bamboo  in  which  is  inserted  a  tuft  of  goat's  hair." 

Bamboos  have  hard  silicious  exteriors,  rendering  them 
nearly  impervious  to  water.  Their  development  may  be 
rightly  compared  to  that  of  asparagus,  in  that  both  are  at  first 
brittle  and  tender.  Stems  grown  in  a  few  weeks  require  three 
or  four  years  to  harden.  The  fresh  uncured  stems  can  be 
curved  or  bent  to  many  uses.  In  Japan,  bamboo  is  said 
to  have  developed  into  one  of  the  most  profitable  of  crops. 
(Fairchild,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin 
No.  43.) 

The  manipulation  of  this  valuable  material  is  not  yet 
understood  in  America.  Prof.  Johnson  notes  |  that  the  wood 
of  "bamboo  is  just  twice  as  strong  as  the  strongest  wood  in 
cross-bending,  weight  for  weight,  when  the  wood  is  taken  in 
specimens,  with  a  square  and  solid  cross-section. ' '  Dr.  Fernow 
considers  the  bamboo  worthy  of  more  extensive  trial  through- 
out the  Gulf  region. 

*  Prof.  Isaac  F.  Holton,  «  New  Granada,"  Harper  Bros.,  New  York,  1857  (p. 
109). 

f  "Cycle  of  Cathay,"  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  1899  (p.  172). 

t  Materials  of  Construction,  1897,  p.  689. 

Henry  G.  Hubbard,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  II.     A.  B.  Mitford,   « 
Bamboo  Garden,"  Macmillan,    1896.     Kurz,  "  Bamboo  and  its  Uses,    C 

I87«  Bamboo  as  Substitute  for  Wood,"  Fernow,  p.  203,  6th  Annual  Report. 
"  Japanese  Bamboos,"  FairchiM,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.      Bureau  PI 
dustry,  Bulletins  42  and  43. 


198  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD 

Bamboo.  Bambusa  vulgar  is. 

Nomenclature. 

Bamboo  (local  and  common  name). 

Locality. 

Florida  (acclimated). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  feet  in  height,  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter. 
Delicate  branches  and  leaves.  Greenish  glazed  jointed  stem, 
extensive  roots. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Yellowish  brown,  conspicuously  fibrous,  moderately  thin  walls, 
central  canal  broken  by  joints. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  elastic,  works  easily. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  poles,  utensils,  troughs,  pipes,  roofing,  paper. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Variable. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,380.000  (Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  689). 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

27,400  (Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  689). 

Remarks. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  bamboos  while  large  as  trees  are  not 
trees,  but  wood-producing  grasses.  The  woods  have  been  used 
in  balloon  frames  and  were  formerly  employed  in  incandescent 
electric  lamps.  A  stem  attains  full  height  in  a  single  year, 
but  must  then  stand  for  three  or  four  years  in  order  to  season 
or  harden. 


Rattan  is  obtained  from  several  sources.  Species  of  Calamus,  as  C. 
rudentum,  are  pre-eminently  climbers.  Stalks  not  over  an  inch  thick  are 
sometimes  three  hundred  or  more  feet  in  length,  ascending  and  falling  in 
festoons  from  tall  trees.  Species  of  Rhapis,  as  R.  flabelliformis,  are,  on 
the  contrary,  erect  canes  growing  in  thick  tufts.  The  former  are  known 
as  climbing  and  the  latter  as  ground  rattans.  Both  are  characterized  by 
toughness,  length,  lightness  and  pliability.  Natives  make  houses,  bridges, 
matting,  hats,  and  baskets  of  it.  They  also  make  many  kinds  of  cordage, 
from  fine  sewing  fibres  to  thick  cables.  Rattan,  which  is  usually  split, 
is  superceding  willow,  in  most  civilized  countries,  for  furniture,  fancy 
carriage  bodies,  chair  bottoms  and  the  like.  The  best  rattan  comes  from 
Borneo. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abies 155,  162 

balsamea 87,  162,  163 

concolor 142,  162,  165 

grandis 162,  164 

magnified 1 66 

nobilis 167 

taxijolia 160 

Acacia 83 

False 83 

Three-thorned 84 

Acer 46 

dasycarpum 49 

macrophyllum 51 

negundo 47,  52 

pseudoplatanus 46,  71 

rubrum 50 

saccharinum 48.  49 

saccharum 46,  48 

jEsculus 102 

calijornica 104 

flava 104 

glabra 103 

hippocastanum 102,  103 

octandra 104 

Ailanthus 89 

Ailanthns  glandulosa 89 

Alburnum 1 1 

Alearoba 85 

Alligator-wood 106 

Almug 123 

Amyris  balsamijera 122 

Apple 34,  4° 

Apple-tree  (Osage) 119 

Arborvitae 173,  174,  *77'  J78 

Giant 174, 

Pacific 

A  rbutus 

menziesii i  J4, 

xalapensis 

Arctostaphylos 

glauca.  .  . 
pungens 


tomentosa 


81 

1 6 
1 6 

16 
16 

....   116 
..   116 


.  ,.  . 

Arundtnana ^6 

Arundo ^ 

Ash.... 33,34,35,36,39,40 

American 3  <• 

B'ack 33,  36,  38,  52 

Blue .-••37.39 

Brown 36,  38 

Cane 35 

Green 33,39 

Ash,  Hoop 38 

(mineral  in  wood) 2 

Mountain 40 

Oregon 40 

Prickly 4o 

Red 36 

River 36 

Second-growth 33 

Swamp 38,  39 

Stinking 52 

Sugar.. 52 

Water 38,  39,  52 

White 33,  35,  38,  39 

Yellow 40 

Aspen 87 

Large  American 89 

Quaking 89 


B 


Balluck 134 

Balm 91 

Balm  of  Gilead 91,  163 

Fir 163 

Balsam 87,  91,  158,  163,  165 

Canada 163 

He 156 

Poplar 87,91 

White 165 

Balsam  Fir 142 

Balsam  Tree 165 

Bamboo 189,  196,  197,  198 

Bambusa 196 

vulgaris • 198 

199 


200 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Bass 87 

Basswood 86,  87,  93 

White 93 

Yellow 93 

Bast 5,93 

Bastard-cut 14 

Bay  Rose 114 

Bay  Tree 115 

California 115 

Bayonet,  Spanish 194 

Baywood 126 

Bead  Tree 116 

Bean  Tree 98 

Beech 66,  68 

Blue 66,  69 

Red 68 

Ridge 68 

Water 69,  72 

White 68 

Beetle,  Spruce  destroying 155 

Bee-tree 87,  93 

Betula 74 

lenta 75,  80,  117 

lute* 75.  79 

nigra 78 

papyrijera 74,  77 

populijolia 75,  76 

Big-bud 60 

Big  Tree 167,  186,  188 

California 186,  188 

Birch 74,  78 

Bark 74,  75 

Black 78,  80 

Blue 78 

Canoe 77 

Cherry 80,  117 

European 75 

Gray 76,  79 

Large  White 77 

Mahogany 80 

Oil 75 

Old6eld 76 

^P" 74,77 

Poplar-leaved 76 

Poverty 76 

Red 74,78 

River 78,80 

Silver 77,  79 

Small  White 76 

Swamp 79 

Sweet 75,  80,  117 

Water 78 

White 74,  76,  77 

Yellow 75,79 

Bitternut 59 

Black  Lind 92 

B'ackwood 122 

Blisted 106 

Bloodwood , .   122 


Slowdown 155 

Bluing 14 

Boards 14 

Boc 66 

Bodark 119,  180 

Bodock 119 

Bois  Puant 72,  97 

Bois  D'Arc 117,  119 

Bok 66 

Boleau 77 

Bot 14 

Botanical  Name 3 

Bow-wood 119 

Box 129 

Boxelder 47,  52 

Boxwood 109,  112,  114 

New  England na 

Box,  False  (Dogwood) 112 

Brashwood 14 

Brittle  Thatch 192 

BROADLEAF  TREES 15,  16 

WOODS 15,  16 

Buche 66 

Buckeye 102,  103,  104 

Big 104 

California 104 

Fetid 103 

Large 104 

Ohio 103 

Stinking 103 

Sweet 104 

Yellow 104 

Bullnut 60 

Bumelia 67 

tenax 67 

lycioides 67 

Burl 53,75 

Butternut 53,  56 

Buttonball 71,  72,  73 

Buttonball-tree 72,  73 

Buttonwood 72,  73 

Buxus 109 

sempervirens 109 

Byra  ebenus 118 


Cabbage  Tree 192 

Calamus 198 

rudentum 198 

Calico  Bush 114 

California  Species 114 

Cambium 4 

Camphor  Gum 99 

Camphor  Tree 99 

Camphor  Wood 99 

Cane  Palm 198 

Canker 14 


INDEX. 


Canoewood  .......... 

Carbon  ................ 

Carpinus  ................  .'.'.'.'         66 

caroliniana  ........... 

Carya  .......  , 

alba  ...............  " 

olivajormis  ........... 

porcina  ............... 

tomentosa  ............. 

Cassia  Bark  ...........  '. 

Castama 

dentata 


.66,69 

57 

58 
6 1 


...63,65 
wsca  ........................     6 

vesca  var.  americana  ..........     64 

vulgaris  var.  americana  .......  63,  64 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla  .. 


alba 

Catalpa 

Hardy 

Western 

Catalpa  .  . 


.62,  63,  65 
..113, 114 
..113,  114 
•96,  97,  98 
....96,97 

97 

96 


06,  Q7 


bignonioides c»g 

catalpa 

speciosa 

Catawba 

Catawba  Tree 98 

Cajeput II5 

Cedar 173,  175,  176,  177,  178,  183 

Atlantic  Red 177 

Bastard 182 

California  Post 182 

California  White 182 

Canoe 1 74,  1 78 

Cuban 128 

Giant 162,  178 

Giant  Red 178 

Incense 174,  182 

India 174 

Lebanon 1 73 

Mexican 128 

Oregon 180 

Pacific  Red 

Pencil 

Port  Orford 174,  1 80 

Post 179,  182 

Red 173,  174,  175,  178,  182 

Southern 175 

Spanish 125,  128,  173 

Swamp 1 79 

Western 176,  178 

Western  Red 175,  176 

White...  173,  174,  177,  179,  180,  182 

Yellow 174,  176,  181 

Cedrela 124 

australis 128 

odorata 125,  128 

odorata-blanco 128 


778 
175 


Cedrela  toona  ........ 

°±l-::::.v.  ......  •••»» 

Cell  Structures  ...  .T  '       I 

Cellulose  ..........  \\\\ 

Celtis  occidentalis  ........  ....,,',     gl 

Census  U.  S.  Experiments  .....  g 

Cercocarpus  bremflorus  .  .  I2A 


parvijohus  ...........  * 

Chamcecyparis  ..........  1  73,  *  74,  183 

la-wsomana 


somana 
nootkatensis 


thyoides 


Checks ; I74'I79 

Cheneetoile ..', 

Chine  Vert  . . 


74,117,120 

I2_ 
I2° 
I20 
120 

117,120 
I20 


Choke 
Rum 
Whisky 
Wild 

Wild  Black 
Cherry  Birch  ..................  .     go 

Chestnut  ..................  62/63,  64 

Evergreen  ...................     53 

Horse  ...................  IO2   Io, 

China  .........................   ng 

China-berry  ....................   XI6 

Chinquapin  ...............  62,  6*,  6c 

California  ...................     62 

Golden  ......................     62 

Western  .....................     62 

Chlorophyll  ....................       e 

Chloroxylon  swietenia  ...........   125 

Cigar-tree  ...................  97,98 

Indian  ......................     98 

Cinnamomum  camphor  a  .........     99 

cassia  .......................     99 

zeylanicum  ................  '.  .  .     99 

Cinnamon  Tree  ................     99 

Citrus...  ......................     34 

aurantium  ...................     34 

trifoliata  .....................     34 

Cladrastis  tinctoria  ..............     40 

Cliftonia  monophylla  ............     67 

Coefficients  ..................  8,  9,  10 

Coffee  .........................     67 

Coffeebean  ....................     67 

Coffeenut  ......................     67 

Coffeebean-tree  .................     67 

Conifers  .....................  15,  135 

Coniferous  Trees  ...........  ....   135 

Coniferous  Woods  ..............   135 

Confederate  Pintree  .............     84 

Consumption  (of  Wood)  .........       2 

Convolvulus  scoparius  ...........  122 


202 


INDEX. 


Copal iS2 

Cornel 112 

Flowering 112 

Cornus 109 

ftorida 112 

Cotton  Tree 90 

Cottonwood 86,  87,  oo,  91 

Balm 91 

Balsam 91 

Big 9° 

Black 91 

Broadleaved 90 

Yellow 90 

Crab  Apple ---34-4O 

American 34 

Narrowleaf 34 

Oregon 34 

Sweet 34 

Cross-section 13 

Cucumber 92 

Cucumber-tree 86,  87,  88,  92 

Cupressus 183 

goveniana 183 

macrocarpa 183 

Cupshake 14 

Cypress 173,  174,  183,  185 

Alaska 181 

Alaska  Ground 181 

American 184,  185 

Bald 184,  185 

Black 184,  185 

Deciduous 185 

Gowan 183 

Lawson 174,  180 

Monterey 183 

Nootka 181 

Nootka  Sound 181 

Peggy 184 

Red 185 

Sitka 181 

Southern 185 

Swamp 185 

White 184,  185 

Yellow 174,  181 

Cyrilla  racemiflora 67 


Dagger,  Spanish 194 

Dalbergia  latijolia 122 

nigra 122 

sissoo 113 

Dammara  australis 152,  153 

Date  Plum 118 

Date,  Wild 192,  193 

Deal 151 

Decay  (also  see  Fungus  Diseases)  . .     14 
Deciduous  Trees 15,  16 


Deciduous  Woods 15,  16 

Dendrocalamus : .   196 

Dendroctonus   piceaperda    (spruce- 
destroying  beetles) 155 

Dendroctoiius  ponder osce  (beetles), 

148,  174 

Deodar 1 74 

DICOTYLEDONS 10 

Diospyros 117 

virginiana 117,118 

Diseases  (also  see  Fungus  Diseases)     14 

Dogwood no,  112 

Flowering no,  112 

Poison 112 

Dote 14 

Douglas  Tree 161 

Dry  rot 14 

Duramen 12 


Ebony 117,  118 

Jamaica 118 

Ebenacea 117,  118 

Edge  grain 14 

Edging 14 

Elm 41, 42,  45,  180 

American 42 

Cliff 43 

Cork 43,45 

False 67 

Hickory 43 

Moose 44 

Mountain 45 

Red 44,45 

Redwooded 44 

Rock 43,  44 

Slippery 44 

Small-leaved 45 

Wahoo 45 

Water 42,  45 

White 42,43 

Wing 45 

Winged 45 

Witch 45 

Encena 30 

ENDOGENS 10,  189 

ENDOGENOUS  TREES  ...  .10,  189 
ENDOGENOUS  WOODS  . .  .10,  189 

Evergreen 15,  135 

Evergreen  Trees 15,  135 

Evergreen  Woods 15,  135 

Eucalypt 129 

Eucalyptus 129 

Giant 132 

Eucalyptus 129 

amygdalina 129,  130,  132 

citrwdora 1 30 


INDEX. 


203 


Eucalyptus  colossea X32 

corynocalyx -'130,132 

a^vers^color I20   T  T> 


gomphocephala  ----  .  .......  129, 

macrorhyncha  ................ 

marginal  ................  I29; 

resinifera  .................... 

rostrata  ..............  I29)  I30) 

•viminalis  .................  I  ,o 


EXOGENS  ......  10   ii 

EXOGENOUS  TREES  ......  10'  n 

EXOGENOUS  WOODS  .....  10,  n 

Exothea  paniculata  ..............     67 


Fagus 66 

atropunicea -66,  68 

jerruginea 68 

False  Box II2 

Feather-cone 167 

Fever  Tree 134 

Fibre 6,  7 

Ficus II4 

elastica 114 

glomerata 114 

macrophylla 114 

rubiginosa 114 

sycamorus 71 

Fig-tree 71 

Fir 155,  161,  162 

Balm  of  Gilead 163 

Balsam 142,  162,  163,  165 

California  Red 166 

California  Red-bark 166 

California  White 165 

Colorado  White 165 

Common  Balsam 1 63 

Concolor  White 165 

Dantzic 151 

Douglas 160,  161,  162 

Feather-cone 167 

Golden 166 

Great  Silver 164 

Lowland 164 

Magnificent 166 

Memel 151 

Noble 167 

Noble  Red 167 

Noble  Silver 167 

Northern 151 

Oregon  White 1 64 

Prince  Albert's 169 

Red 160,  161,  166,  167,  168 

Rigi 151 

Scots 151 

Scottish 151 


Fir  Shasta 

Silver !62,  !64,  i6c 

Stettin .-I 

Swedish 

Tree ]          ]  {g 

Western  Hemlock 160 

Western  White r64 

White 154,  162,  164,  165 

Yellow.. !6o,  164 

Florida  Species II4 

Foliage  System 4 

Forester , 6 

Forestry 5 

Forestry  Division  Experiments,  8,  9,  10 

Fraxinus 33 

americana 33,  35 

lanceolata 33^  39 

™&a 33*38 

oregona 40 

pubescens 36 

pennsylvanica 36 

quadrangulata 37 

sambucijolia 38 

viridis 39 

Frostshake 14 

Fruitwoods 34 

Fungus  Diseases 14,  148,  155 

Ash-White .  ?e 


Cedar 175 

Cedar  Incense 182 

Cypress 184 

Spruce 155 


Gallic  Acid 17,  32 

Generic  Name 3 

Genus 3 

Gleditsia 81 

triacanthos 81 ,  84 

Gopher  Plum 108 

Gopher  Wood 40 

Great  Laurel 112,  114 

Greenheart 121,  12 

Growth 4,  5 


121,  123 
••4,5.6 

Guaiac no 

Guajac no 

Guajacum 109 

arborium 113 

officinale no,  113 

sanctum 67,  no,  113 

Guadua 196 

Gums  (also  see  Resins),  7,  16,  152,  153 

Kauri 153 

Mesquite 82 

Gum  (Trees).  . .  105,  106,  107,  108,  129 
Black 105,  107,  165 


204 


INDEX. 


Gum  Blue 129,  130,  134 

Cotton 108 

Kauri 153 

Mahogany 129,  131 

Manna 130,  131 

Red 105,  106,  129,  130,  133 

Red  California 106 

Satin 106 

Sour 105,  107,  108 

Star-leaved 106 

Sugar 130,  132 

Sweet 105,  106 

Tree 106,  129 

Tupelo 105,  107,  108 

Walnut 106 

White 132,  133 

Yellow  (Gum)  Tree 107 

Gumbo  file 100 

Gutta-percha 115 

Gymnocladus  dioicus 67 


H 


Hackberry 67 

Hackmatack 170,  171,  172 

Hardhack 70 

Hardshell 59 

HARDWOODS 15,16 

Heartwood 12 

He  Balsam 156 

Hedge 119 

Hedge-plant 119 

Hemlock 155,  168,  169 

Alpine 168 

Black 168 

Carolina 169 

Eastern 168 

Southern 169 

Western 168,  169 

JJevea 114 

braziliensis 114 

Hicoria 57 

alba 60 

glabra 59 

ovata 58 

Pecan 57,  61 

Hickory 54,  57,  58,  60 

Black 59,  60 

Brown 59 

Common 60 

Hardbark 60 

Hickory-nut  (Tree) 60 

Hickory  Nuts 57,  58,  59,  61 

Hognut 60 

Mockernut 60 

Pecan 61 

Pignut 59 

Red 59,  60 


Hickory,  Scalybark 58 

Second  growth 33,  57 

Shagbark 58 

Shellbark 58 

Switch-bud 59 

Upland 58 

White 58,  59,  60,  1 80 

Whiteheart 60 

Holly 109,  no,  in 

American in 

White in 

Honey 84 

Honey  Pod 85 

Honey  Shucks 84 

Hornbeam 66,  69,  70 

Horse  Chestnut 102,  103 

Humis 6 


Identification 10 

lie* 109 

opaca 109-1 1 1 

aquijolium 109 

Indian-bean 97,  98 

Indian  Cigar  Tree 98 

India  Rubber 114 

Inlaid  Work 109-1 1 1 

Inspection 15 

Iron-bark 129,  130 

Iron-bark  Red 130 

Ironwood 66,  69,  70,  85,  113 


Jarrah 129,  131 

Joshua  (The) 190,  194,  195 

Tree 194,  195 

Juglans 53 

calijornica 54 

cinerea 53,56 

nigra 55 

rrg"* 53.  54,  55 

rupestris 54 

Juniper,  67,  171,   173,   174,   175,   176, 
179,  182 

California 1 76 

Red 175 

Western 176 

Juniper  Bush 1 75 

Jumperus 173 

barbadensis 1 73,  1 74,  1 75 

calijornica 1 76 

occtdentalis 176 

scopulorum 173,  174,  175 

virginiana 173,  174,  175 


INDEX. 


205 


Kalmia  latijolia 
Karri 

Kauri  Gum 
Kauri  Pine 
Khaya 

senegalensis 
Kino 
Knots 


•129. 


114 
132 


124 
133 


Lanza  Experiments 9 

Larch 167,  170,  171,  172 

American i^t 

American  Western 172 

Black 171 

European 172 

Great  Western 172 

Red 171 

Red  American 172 

Tamarack , 171,  172 

Western 170,  172 

Larix 1 70 

americana 170,  171 

europaa 1 72 

laricina 171 

occidentalis 170,  172 

Laurel 112,  114,  115,  116 

Big 114 

California 114,  115 

Great 112,  114 

Madrona 114,  116 

Mountain H4>  115 

Laurelwood 116 

Lazlett  Experiments 9 

Leaves 4 

Leverwood 70 

Libocedrus 173 

decurrens 1 74,  182 

Lignin i 

Lignumvitae 109,  113 

Lime 87 

Lime-Ogeechee 108 

Lime  Tree 87,  93,  108 

Black 93 

Smooth-leaved 93 

Lime-tree  Wild 108 

Lin,  Black 92 

Lind 87 

White 93 

Linden 87,  93 

American 93 

Linn 93 

Linociera  ligustrina 122 

Liquid  amber. 105,  106 

Liquidamber 105 

styraciflua 105,  106 


T  •    •    J        J 

Lmodendron 
tulipijera 

^cust 81,83,84 

^ck  81,83,84 

Green g. 

Honey gi,  83,  84,  8<; 

Honey  Shucks 

Pea  Flower  ....  gj 

post.... ;     ;  I* 

Red 1| 

Screw  Pod 82 

Sweet ' '     g4 

Thorn g4 

Thorny gd 

White 8, 

Yellow g^ 

Logging  Methods 162,  187 

Lumber 2 

Lumber-rolled 14 

Lumbering,  see  Logging 162,  187 

Lysiloma  sabicu nj 


M 

Maba 125 

buxijolia 125 

Madura ny 

aurantiaca 117,  119 

Madeira 126 

Madrona 114,  116 

Mexican 1 16 

Madrone  Tree 116 

Madro  ve 1 1 6 

Magnolia 114 

Mountain 92 

Magnolia 86,  114 

grandiflora 114 

acuminata 92 

Mahogany 67,  74,  124,  126,  129 

African 124,  126 

American 79,  124,  126 

Cuban 124,  126 

Honduras 124,  126 

Indian 124 

Mexican 124,  126 

Mountain 80,  124 

Red 125,131 

San  Domingan 124,  126 

Spanish 124,  126 

White 56,  125,  127 

Mammoth  Trees 186,  188 

Manna,  American,  False 142 

Manna  Gum 130,  131 

Manufacturers'  Association 15 

Manzanita no 

Maple 46,  51 

Ash-leaved 52 

Bird's-eye 46,  48 

Black 48 


206 


INDEX. 


Maple,  Blister 46,  48 

Broad-leaved 51 

Curly 46,48,49,  50 

Cut-leaved 52 

Hard 47-48 

(Maple  Keys) 47 

Negundo 47.  52 

Oregon 51 

Red 47.  5° 

Red  River 52 

River 49 

Rock 48 

Silver 47.  49 

Soft 47,49,50 

Swamp 49.  5° 

Sugar  (Sugar  Maple) 47.  48 

(Maple  Sugar),  47,  48,  49.  5°.  52.  56 

Water 49.  5° 

White 49,  5°.  51 

Three-leaved 52 

Mastic  Peruvian 115 

Medullary  Rays 7,  12,  13,  15 

M elia  azedarach 1 1 6 

Merisier 79 

Rouge 79 

Mesquite 81,82,85 

Screw  Pod 82 

Mildew 14 

Mill  Values 2 

Mockernut 60 

Mock  Orange 119 

Moduli! 8,  9,  10 

Moisture 5,  7 

MONOCOTYLEDONS, 

10,  189,  190,  196 

Morus 99 

alba 99 

nigra 99 

rubra 99,  101 

Mucilage 153 

Mulberry 99,  101 

Black 99,  101 

Red 99,  101 

Russian 99 

White 99 

Mulberry-tree,  Virginia 101 

Murier  Sauvage 101 

Myrtle  Tree 115 

N 

Naval  Stores 139,  145 

Nectandra 121 

rodiali 121,  123 

Needleleaf  Conifers 15,  135 

Trees 15,  135 

Woods 15,  135 

Negundo  aceroidcs 52 

Netrwashingtonia  filamentosa 193 

Nettle-tree 67 


Noble  Silver  Fir • 167 

Nomenclature 108 

Nyssa 105 

aquatica 108 

ogeche 108 

sylvatica 105,  107 


Oak 17 

African 121 

Basket 20 

Black 18,25,  28 

Black,  Live 31 

Box 22 

Box,  White 22 

Brash 22 

British 1 7,  32 

Bur. 1 8,  23 

California  Live 18,  30 

California  Post 24 

California  White 24 

Canyon 31 

Canyon  Live 31 

Chene"  ftoile" 22 

Chene"  Vert 29 

Chestnut 18,  21,  32 

Coast  Live 30 

Common 32 

Cow 1 8,  20 

Dantzic 32 

Durmast 32 

Dyer's 28 

Encina 30 

English 1 7,. 32   121 

Evergreen 30 

Golden  Cup 31 

Highland 31 

Indian 121,  122 

Iron 22,  31 

Live 17,  18,  29,  30,  31 

Maul 31 

Mossycup 23 

Mossycup  White 23 

Mountain 21 

Oregon  White 24 

Overcup 22,  23 

Pacific  Post 1 8,  24 

Pin 18,26 

Post 18,  22 

Quercitron 28 

Red 18,  25,  27,  32 

Rigi 3* 

Rock 21 

Rock  Chestnut 21 

Scrub 23 

Spanish 18,  25,  27 

Spotted 28 

Stave 19 


INDEX. 


207 


Oak,  Swamp  ..................  24'  26 

Swamp  Chestnut  ____  .'.'.'.'  .'  '  .'  .20'  2  1 

Swamp  Spanish  ............  '  .  '  26 

Swamp  White  .............  .  '  '     20 

Tanbark  ................  ...21,28 

Water  .......................     26 

Water  Spanish  ...............     26 

Weeping  ..................     2 

Western  White 


24 
17,18,19,22,24 

24 


Valley 

Valparaiso 

Yellow  ................  .....18,28 

Yellowbark  ..................     28 

Ogeechee  Lime  ...............  ]  ]  I08 


Oil  Nut  .  . 


Oldfieldia  ajricana 121,  122 

Olea  europaa ^4 

Olive  California !  j  5 

Olivetree . .  I08 

Wild I08 

Olivewood 74 

Olneya  tesota 67 

One-berry 67 

Orange,  Mock up 

Orangewood 34 

Oreodaphne 115 

Oreodoxa  regia 190,  191 

Osage 1x7,  n9 

Osage  Apple  Tree 119 

Osage  Orange 117,  119,  180 

Osier 04 

Willow 94 

Ostrya 66 

virginiana 66,  70 


Palm 189,  190,  191,  192,  193 

California  Fan 193 

Cane.  . 191,  198 

Date  .... 192,  193 

Desert 193 

Fanleaf 190,  191,  193 

Rattan  (also  see  Rattan).  .  .191,  198 

Royal 190,  191 

Sargent 191 

Washington 190,  193 

PALMACEA 191 

Palmetto 190,  191,  192 

Bank's 192 

Cabbage .  .,. 191,  192 

Mexican 191,  192 

Silver  Thatch 192 

Silvertop 191,  192 

Silktop 191,  192 

Tree 192 

Papyrus 66 


Paulownia  ................ 

Paulownia  tomentosa  .  .    '  Q, 

Peaflower  (Locust)  .....  g' 


p 

Pecamer.  .  . 
Pepper 

California 

Longleaf 
Peppermint  Tree 


117, 118 
. . .   112 


Pepperwood 

Persimmon 

Black 

Mexican  .  , IIO>  II2 

Peruvian  Mastic IIS 

Phcenix I92>  I93 

Phoenix  dactylijera 192,  193 

Pice,? 154,155 


canaaensis 
excelsa 
engelmanni 
mariana 


i54>  158 
^6 

154,156 


rubens 

sitchensis  ....................   159 

Pignut  ........................     59 

Pine  ..............  136,  141.  155,  157 

Alaska  ...................  168,  169 

Arizona  flexilis  ...............   141 

Bastard  .....  139,  145,  147,  148,  165 

Bhotan  ......................   151 

Big  ......................  142,  148 

Black  ................  143,  147,  150 

Black  Norway  ...............   150 

Black  Slash  ...  ...............   147 

Blister  ......................   163 

Brown  ...................  144,  146 

Bull  ....  139,  141,  146,  147,  148,  149 

Canadian  Red  ...............  149 

Carolina  ....................   146 

Common  Yellow  .............   146 

Cornstalk  ....................   147 

Cowdie  ......................   153 

Cuban  ...........  138,  139,  144,  145 

Dantzic  .....................   151 

Digger  ......................   149 

Douglas  .................  160,  161 

European  ................  139,  151 

Fat  .....................  144,  150 

Finger  Cone  .................   143 

Fir  .........................   163 

Florida  ......................   144 

Florida  Longleaved  ...........   144 

Florida  Yellow  ...............  144 


208 


INDEX. 


Pine,  Foothills  Yeltow. 148 

Foxtail 147 

Frankincense 147 

Georgia 144 

Georgia  Heart 144 

Georgia  Longleaved 144 

Georgia  Pitch 144 

Georgia  Yelbw 144 

Gigantic 142 

Ginger 180 

Great  Sugar 142 

Grey   149 

Greyleaf 149 

Hard,  136, 138, 144, 146, 149,  150, 160 

Heart    144 

Heavy 148 

Heavy-wooded 148 

Indian 147 

Jack 149 

Jersey. 149 

Kauri 152,  153 

Limber 141 

Limber-twig 141 

Little  Sugar 142,  143 

Loblolly 138,  139,  145,  147,  148 

Lodgepole 143 

Longleaf 138,  139,  144,  145 

Longleaved 148,  1 50 

Lnogleaved  Pitch  . 144 

Longleaved  Yellow 144 

Longshat 147,  150 

Longshucks 147 

Longstraw 144,  147 

Marsh 148 

Meadow  .      145,  147,  148 

Mexican  White  .    137 

Montana  Black 148 

Monterey 149 

Mountain 143 

Mountain  Weymouth 143 

Murray 143 

Northern 140,  151 

North  Carolina 146,  147,  148 

North  Carolina  Pitch 144 

North  Carolina  Yellow 146 

Norway 149 

Nut 137 

Oldfield 146,  147 

Oregon 139,  160,  161 

Pacific 160 

Pacific  Coast 161 

Parry's 137 

Pattern  Makers 140 

Pitch,  136,  139, 144, 145,  146,  148, 150 

Pond 148 

Poor 146 

Puget  Sound 161 

Pumpkin 140 

Red 148,  149,  161 


Pine,  Rocky  Mountain 141 

Rocky  Mountain  White 141 

Rosemary 144,  146,  147 

Sabine 149 

Sap 147.  1S° 

Scotch 151 

Scrub 149 

Shade 142 

She 145 

She  Pitch 145 

Shortleaf 138,  139,  146,  147 

Short  leaved  Yellow 146 

Shortshat 146 

Silver 137,  143,  163 

Slash 145,  146,  147 

Soft 136,  137,  140,  143 

Southern 136,  144 

Southern  Hard 144 

Southern  Heart 144 

Southern  Pitch 144 

Southern  Yellow 144,  148 

Spruce,  139,  140,  143,  145,  146,  147, 
148,  169 

Stone 151 

Sugar 137,  142 

Swamp *45,  '47 

Tamarack 143 

Texas  Longleaved 144 

Texas  Yellow 144 

Torch 147 

Turpentine 144 

Virginia 146,  147 

Virginia  Yellow 146 

Western  Pitch 148 

Western  White 141,  143 

Western  Yellow 148 

Weymouth 140,  143 

White,  137, 140, 141, 142,143.  '51.  r58 

White-bark 137 

Yeltow. . .  139,  144,  146,  147,  148,  150 

Finite 142 

Pintree,  Confederate 84 

Pinus 136,  155 

albicaulis 137 

cembra 151 

cembroides 137 

divaricate 149 

echinata 138,  139,  146 

cxcelsa 151 

flexilis 137,  141 

glabra 143 

Iteterophylla 138,  139,  145 

lambertiana 137,  142 

mitts 138,  146 

monticola 137,  143 

murrayanc 143 

palustris 3,  138,  139,  144,  145 

ponderosa 148 

quadrijolia 137 


INDEX. 


209 


Pinus  radiata  
resinosa  
rigid  a   
sabiniana  
serotina 

PAGE 
149 

136,   150 
149 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  .  . 
Pterocarpus  erinaceus  .  . 
santalinus  
Pyrus  ...".] 

PAGE 

139,  161 

•  .  .     122 

strobiformis  

148 
137 

americana  
ancuparia 

40 

strobus  
sylvestris  .......... 
teed  a  i  - 

•  -137,   140,   141 

R-  J36'  'Si 

angustifolia  
communis  

40 

34 
34,  40 

taxifolia  ." 

o,  139.   145,   147 

160 

coronaria  

40 

virginiana  
Piquant  armourette    . 
Pitch  tubes  

149 
84 

I  r  £ 

rivularis  .  .  .  
sambucifolia  

vulffnri? 

34,  4° 
34 
40 

Pith  Cavity  

II,  15 

viiLguris  

40 

Pith  Ray  7 

,  12,  13,   15,  i^e 

Plane  Tree  

Planks  

71,  72 

14 

Q 

Platane  Cotonier  
Platanus  
occidentalis  
orientalis 

72 

71 

71,  72 

Quarter  Sawing  
Quercitron  ... 
Quercus  

'3 
28 
3-  4,  17 

racemosa  
Plaqueminier  
Plum  Date  
Plum  Gopher  

71 

::::::::7",?i 

118 

108 

agrifolia.  .  
alba  
chrysolepsis  
digitata  
falcata  

1  8,  30 
•••3,  17-  18,  19 
18,31 
18,  27 

2*7 

Poplar  
Balsam  

.86,  88,  89,  163 
86,87,  9i 

garryana.  
loblata  

/ 

18,  24 

Blue  

.  .     88 

24 

Carolina  

90 

michauxii  

18,  23 
i  g  20 

Hickory  .  «  

88 

minor  

l3    22 

Large  

89 

obtusiloba  ...    

.          22 

Large  Toothed  

89 

palustris  

18,  26 

Necklace  

90 

prinus  ,  

18,  21 

Tulip  

86,  88 

pubescens  . 

White  

86,  89 

robur  

32 

A      J7 

Yellow  

86,  88 

robur  var.  sessiliflora. 

17,  32 

Popple  

86,  89 

robur  var.  pedunculala 

17,  32 

Populus 

86 

rubra 

balsamijera 

87  91    163 

tinctoria  . 

3>  J8,  25 

balsamifera  candicans  . 

91 

velutina  .  ,  

.......  18,  28 

deltoides  

.........     90 

virens  

29 

grandidentata  

89 

virginiana  .  

1  8,  29 

monilifera  

9° 

wislizeni  

31 

tremuloides  

87,89 

Quince  

40 

trichocarpa  

Powcohicora  

57 

Possumwood  

118 

R 

Prickly  Thatch  

192 

Pride  of  India  

116 

Radial  Section  

13 

Prima  vera  

125,  127 

Rattan  

190,  191,  198 

Prosopis  

81 

Redwood  .  .126,  137,  151 

162,  186,  188 

juliflora  

67,  81,  85 

California  

186,  188 

odorata  

82 

Coast  

....  .186,  188 

Prunus  

117 

Giant  

.162,  186,  188 

serotina  

117,   120 

Red  Flower  .  

5° 

Pseudophasnix  sargentii  . 
Pseudotsuga  

I91 
160 

Redwood,  Age  of  
Resin,  16,  no,  135,  138, 

187 
139,  145,  152, 

douglasii  
macrocarpa  

.160,  161,  162 
160 

Fresh-product  

153,  162 
152 

INDEX. 


Resin,  Fossil 152 

Guajac no 

Kauri 152,  153 

Semi-fossil 152 

Varnish 153 

Resin  ducts 7,  16,  135,  162 

Rhapis 198 

flabelliformis 198 

Rhododendron 114 

Rhododendron  maximum 112,  114 

Rhus  integrijolia 124 

Rift -grain 13 

Robinia 81 

pscudacacia  .: 81,  83 

Rolled  Lumber 14 

Root  System 4,  5 

Rose  Bay no,  114 

Rosewood 113,  122 

African 122 

Brazilian 122 

California 122 

Canary 122 

Indian 122 

Jamaica : 122 

Philippine 122 

Rosin 139 

Rot  (see  Fungus  Diseases.) 

Rot  Pin 182 

Rotary  Cut 13,  194 

Rowan  Tree 40 

Rubber 114 

Assam 114 

Mexican 114 

Para 114 

Rust 14 


Sabal  mexicana 191,  192 

palmetto 191,  192 

Sabicu 113 

Sagwan 122 

Salicylic  Acid 80,  94 

Salix 94 

alba 94,95 

caprea 94 

fluviatilis 94 

jragilis 94 

nigra QJ 

russeliana 94 

Sandalwood 123 

Red 123 

Santalin 123 

Sanlalum    123 

Santalum  album 123 

Sapwood ii,  12 

Sargent  for  (P.  C.  S.),  Experiments,     8 

Sassafac 100 

Sassaf  rac  .  . 


Sassafras 99,  100 

California 115 

Sassafras 99 

officinale 100 

sassafras 100 

Satinwood 54,  125 

East  Indian 125 

Florida 125 

West  Indian 125 

Tasmanian 125 

Saunder's  Wood 123 

Savin .   175 

Saxif rax 100 

Tree 100 

Scfurfleria  fruttscens 112 

Schinus  molle .  115 

tcrebinthijolius 115 

Sea  Worm  (see  Teredo) 190 

Second-growth  Ash 33 

Second-growth  Hickory 57 

Second-growth  Woods 57 

Sequoia 186,  187,  188 

Sequoia 186,  188 

gigantea 186,  187,  188 

sempervirens 186,  187,  188 

washingtoniana 186,  187,  188 

Shagbark 58 

Sharpless  (J.  P.),  Experiments. ...       8 

Shawneewood 97 

Shellac 153 

varnish 153 

Shellbark 58 

Shinglewood 178 

Silver  Thatch 192 

Simmon  ... 1 18 

Sissoo 113 

Slab 14 

Slash-cut 14 

Slice-cut 14 

Smoking-bean 98 

Soft-rot 14 

SOFTWOODS 15,135 

Sorbus  (see  Pyrus) 34.  4° 

Soymiia .  .   124 

febrifuga 124 

Spanish  Bayonet 190,  194 

Spanish  Dagger 194 

Species 3 

Specific  Gravity 7 

Specific  Name 3 

Spice-tree. 115 

Spruce,  154,  155,  156,  157,  160,161,169 

Big  Cone 160 

Black.  .    143,  154,  156 

Blue 156 

Bog 157 

California  Hemlock  Spruce.  ...   169 

Cat 157 

Cork -barked  Douglas 161 


Spruce,  Double  

1ND 

PAGE 
.  .  -  .156,   157 

EX. 

Teak  Burma 

211 
PAGE 

Douglas  ... 

139,  160,  161 

Indian  ; 
Malabar 

121 

Engelmann  

Great  Tideland  
He  Balsam  

159 

i<:6 

Rangoon  

Tectona  
Tectona  grandis  

-  .  .  .     121 
121,  122 
.  .  .  .     122 
.  ...    2,  7 

190,  191 

••••  J33 
.  ...  192 
....   192 
....   192 
....     84 
191,  192 
.191,  192 
•173,174 
.174,178 
•174,  177 
....   178 

Q_ 

Hemlock  
Menzies  
Mountain 

169 
159 

Teek 

Tensile  Strength  
Teredo  (Mollusk  Woodborer) 

121, 

Tewart  
Thatch  Brittle  
Pricklv 

Norway  
Prickly  
Red  

143 
154,  156,  160 

ICQ 

Sitka  
Skunk  

Silver  
Thorn  
Thrinax  microcarpa  

Tideland 

Water  
Western  
White  *43,  J54, 

*5y 
156 

159 
156,  157,  158 

160 
155 
107 

parviflora  
Thuya  
gigantea  
occidentalis 

Yellow  
Spruce-destroying  Beetles 
Stinkwood  

plicata  .... 

Tiel 

6 

Tiel-tree 

87 
....     87 
....     86 

Strength  of  Woods  
Stringy-bark  
Stringy  -bark  Victoria  
Sugar  46,47> 
Sugarberry  
Sugar  Tree 

.    .7,  8,9,  10 
129,  130 

48,  50,  52,  56 

••     67 
48 

Tilia  

americana  

....     93 
....     93 

.  .  .  .          2 

••••     133 
40 

....       6 
....   119 
6 

heterophytta  
Timber  
Tooart  

Toothache  Tree  
Top  Soil  
Toxylon  pomijerum  
Tracheid  

Swamp  White  Cedar  
Swamp  Tamarack  
Swamp  Gum  
Sivietenia  

179 

....170,  177 
107 
124 
...  .124,  126 

121 

46,  71,  72,  73 
73 

Tree  
Tree  of  Heaven  .  .  .  '.  

4 
.     80 

Tree  Yucca  

....    195 

.155,168 
.168,  169 
....    169 
.168,  169 
....   168 

senegaknsis  

Trunk  
Tsuga..  
canadensis  
caroliniana  .  «  
heterophylla  

T 

Tabeuia  donnell-smtthii  .  . 
1  acma  ac  

127 

91 
170,  171,  172 

.  .  .    171 

Tuart           

Tulip-tree  
Tupelo 

.  .  .86,  88 
.107,  108 
108 
...   108 
108 

IS2!  172 
.  .  .  .     41 

Red 

Sour  

.    1  7O 

Swamp  

Western 

172 

Turpentine  7,  1  38, 

White                     

Turpentine,  Venice  

Tanbark 

7 

U 

Tangential  Section  
Tar 

138,  139,  145 

isttcnum  

.  .  .  .184,  185 
180 

americana  

•  -41,  42 
.  .  .  .     45 

axus  ;  •  •  •  • 

180 

alata  

180 

.  .  .  .     44 

.  .  .  .121,   122 
.  .  .  .121,   122 

racemosa  

.  .  .  .     43 

African  .  .     

pubescens  

44 

INDEX 


Umbrella  Tree 1 1 6 

Umbellularia  calif  arnica 114,  115 

Unknown  Tree 67 

U.  S.  Census  Experiments 8,  9 

U.   S.    Forestry   Division    Experi- 
ments      8,  9 


Varnish 152,  153 

Oil 152 

Spirit .    .   153 

Veneer ...  13,  53,  75,  109,  125,  194,  195 

Venice  Turpentine 152,  172 

Vertical-grain .      13 

Vessel 6,  135 

Vita: 177 


W 


Wahoo 45 

Walnut 53,55.56,58 

Arizona 54 

Blacfk., 53,55 

California 54 

Circassian 54,  122 


Dwarf. 
English  . 
Little.  . 
Mexican . 
Persian .  . 


Royal 
Satin. 


54 

53,54,55 

54 

54 

55 

53,55 

106 

Shaghark 58 

Sweet 58 

Western 54 

White 53,56 

Wane 14 

Washington™  filijera 191,  193 

Watertown  Arsenal  Experiments .  .  8,  9 

Waves 14 

Weights  of  Woods 8,  9,  10 

Wet  Rot 14 

Whahoo 45 

White  Mahogany 56 

Whitewood 86,  88,  90,  93 

Wickup 03 

Wild  Date 193 

Wild  Olive  Tree ...  .  108 


Wild  Pear  Tree 107 

Willow 94,  95 

American 94 

Bedford 94 

Black 95 

Crack 94 

Goat 94 

Longleaf 94 

Osier 94 

Sandbar 94 

Swamp 95 

White 94,  95 

Windfall 155 

Windshake 14 

Wood...  ..1.2 


Xanthoxylum  americana 40 

caribtrum 125 

clava-hercvlis 40 


Yellowbark 28 

Yellow  Gum  Tree 107 

Yellowwood 112,  119,  151 

Yew 180 

California 180 

Florida 180 

Western 180 

Oregon 180 

Yucca 189,  190,  194,  195 

Aloe-leaf 194 

•    Broadfruit 194 

Cactus 195 

Mohave 194 

Schott 194 

Tree 194,  195 

Yucca 194,  195 

aloijolia 194,  195 

arborescens 194,  195 

brevifolia 194,  195 

constricta 194 

gloriosa 194 

macrocarpa 194 

mohavensis 194 

treculeana 194 


2  G  5  4      5 


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Santa  Barbara,  California  P  R  A  NP  W 

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